Neurological Significance and Practical Strategies for Fostering Bilingualism

    Bilingualism, being proficient in the use of two languages, has been gaining increasing popularity among parenting books as a result of research efforts demonstrating the abundant potential in neuroplasticity during a child’s early development. In addition to increased accessibility to opportunities that inherently accompanies fluency in two languages, bilingualism has also been correlated with increased creativity, a strengthened ability to focus on multiple simultaneous tasks, and greater ease with learning additional languages (Bennett, 2017). Because of the social, cognitive, and academic benefits of bilingualism, recent research studies have been directed towards understanding the structural and functional manifestations of learning two languages during early development, as well as possible parenting approaches to foster this acquisition. 

In the article, “Early bilingualism, language attainment, and brain development,” Berken et al. studied bilingualism as a means of understanding differences in brain circuitry development during sensitive periods conducive to skill acquisition (i.e., during the time of greatest neuroplasticity, when brain circuitry is being formed) compared to learning the skill later in life, at a time when acquisition of a first language has already been developed. The resulting analysis of concurrent and sequential bilingualism attainment provides compelling evidence for the former’s increased potential in more effectively acquiring the skill. Notably, the researchers found that exposure to two languages simultaneously during optimal periods of early development is conducive to successful acquisition because the open window for language development more readily streamlines and integrates the neuronal circuitry that serves the two languages. In other words, bilingual language exposure during an early age creates a foundation from which neuronal circuitry develops. In sequential bilingualism, on the other hand, the attempt to introduce a new language to an already created, working circuitry system proves less successful. Thus, it becomes clear that concurrent attainment of two languages during the sensitive early periods of a child’s development proves to be qualitatively more reliable, suggesting for more adapted parenting methods to best facility this early exposure. 

In a related article, “Raising your children to learn many languages is hard - here’s why it’s worth it,” Mecking describes practical strategies to assist bilingualism attainment in children. Recognizing the benefits of fluency in two languages, Mecking first discusses one of the most  traditionally accepted learning methods - the one-person, one-language (OPOL) method. With this approach, each parent of a child primarily speaks one respective language. However, Mecking proceeds to explain that this may not be the most ideal method for bilingualism attainment. She cites a study in which a substantial sample of bilingual children residing in Belgium were taught Flemish and Dutch using the OPOL method. Contrary to the hope ascribed to this learning method, however, only a fraction of the children demonstrated fluency in both languages. A different, more effective strategy, may be one in which children are exposed to the two languages in different settings. For example, a child may learn Flemish in domestic settings, such as the home, while learning the other language in more social settings, such as at school. Rather than exploiting competing neuronal circuitry systems in the OPOL method, the latter learning strategy allows the child to engage with a more enriched immersion of each language individually. This, then, allows for the child’s sensitive window of language development to make use of concurrently forming circuitry systems for each respective language in a more organized manner, which allows for more streamlined connections, than attempting to build circuitry simultaneously when exposed to both languages in the same situations and contexts. Although the exact ratio level of exposure, as well as during which precise times during development, is not yet well understood, Mecking’s article illuminates considerations that must necessarily be addressed when bridging the gap between the neural framework of bilingualism attainment and its practical cultivation. 

As one who is bilingual in Polish and English, the findings presented by Berken et al. and the strategies examined by Mecking hold personal applicability to my own language development. Upon reflecting on my bilingualism attainment, I am led to provide greater credence to the findings of Berken et al., as well as sharing personal connections to Mecking’s article. My parents opted for the latter strategy Mecking discusses, through which I primarily learned Polish in my home and English at school. Recollecting my early childhood as much as possible, I recall leaning the most Polish from listening to conversations my parents held with one another. It was the primary language they spoke in our household, and being enriched in Polish conversation in such a manner allowed me to gain greater intuition in both structural and expressional intricacies of the language. For example, even when I do not know exactly how to say something in Polish, I have an inclination towards which option sounds the most likely. In agreement with Berken et al.’s findings, I have personal experience with the benefits the researchers cite regarding simultaneous acquisition of two languages. Notably, knowing English and Polish has made learning new languages significantly easier. By knowing the types of differences I can expect between two languages (e.g., that adjectives may be conjugated in one language but not another), I can more easily accept specific grammar rules of new languages that may seem more foreign to my peers. There is much left to be understood in the science of language acquisition, but the findings presented by Berken et al. and Mecking, coupled with my own experiences, provides me with ascribing greater salience to the importance of furthering this area of study. 

References

Bennett, Rosemary. “Children with Two Languages Excel at School.” News | The Times, The Times, 11 Apr. 2017, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/children-with-two-languages-excel-at-school-sc8ftfsk8.

Berken, Jonathan A., et al. “Early Bilingualism, Language Attainment, and Brain Development.” Neuropsychologia, vol. 98, 2017, pp. 220–227., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.08.031.

Olga Mecking, Aeon. “Raising Your Children to Learn Many Languages Is Hard – Here's Why It's Worth It.” Scroll.in, Scroll.in, 5 June 2018, https://scroll.in/article/880841/raising-your-children-to-learn-many-languages-is-hard-heres-why-its-worth-it.

Neuroplasticity in Early Bilingualism and in Blind Children

 

          Neuroplasticity is the incredible ability of the brain to modify and rewire itself in response to certain experiences. The brain will undergo structural and functional change throughout one’s lifespan. Evidence suggests that the extent to which neuroplasticity occurs depends on the age at which learning begins. Neuroplasticity is a hot topic in neuroscience research, but studying it can be challenging. Two methods have been proven as useful for studying the brain’s neuroplastic ability, and those are the study of bilinguals and the study of the blind.

            In the article, “Early bilingualism, language attainment, and brain development,” Dr. Berken et. al. investigates the differences in brain structure between individuals who have been bilingual from a young age and those who learned a second language later in life. Using PET and fMRI data, they found that brain structure and function is more effectively organized when two languages are learned simultaneously at a young age, and that second languages developed later in life have a smaller neuroplastic change. This affirms how age and neuroplasticity are related, more specifically, how within the first few years of life when the brain is still actively developing, new experiences have the largest capacity to affect and change neural structure and function.  

            These findings parallel those by Dr. Ortiz-Teran et. al in the article, “Brain circuit–gene expression relationships and neuroplasticity of multisensory cortices in blind children.” Sensory deprivation is known to induce neuroplasticity in the brain by reorganizing neural circuits. This is notably evident in blind individuals, who show functional connectivity reorganization due to their lack of sight. Using neuroimaging techniques and systems-level analyses, the researchers were able to find that the neural reorganization in blind children involves multisensory integration regions. Using within-group analysis, it was also found that functional connectivity changes also increased with age. Evidence was also found that the spatial cortical expression of genes underlies the reorganizational abilities of the multimodal cortex. These results are similar to those in the bilingual study as blind children show neuroplastic changes that continue as they age, similar to individuals who learn a second language from a young age. Neuroplastic changes are shown in both studies to be the largest in those at a younger age; however, in the study of blind children we see how the neuroplastic changes continue as the blind children age.

            The study of neuroplasticity offers insight into the way our brain grows and changes in response to new knowledge and experiences, and also provides helpful insight into understanding neuroplastic changes in those with sensory deprivation, which may one day help in developing therapeutical treatments to help those patients.

 

Sources:

Berken, Jonathan A., et al. “Early Bilingualism, Language Attainment, and Brain Development.” Neuropsychologia, vol. 98, 2017, pp. 220–227., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.08.031.

Ortiz-Terán, Laura, et al. “Brain Circuit–Gene Expression Relationships and Neuroplasticity of Multisensory Cortices in Blind Children.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 114, no. 26, 2017, pp. 6830–6835., https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1619121114.

ADHD does not present identically in each demographic by Kareena Dharia

 ADHD does not present identically in each demographic.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, also known as ADHD is one of the most commonly known behavior disorders today. The reason people are so familiar with ADHD is because globally there are nearly 400 million people who are affected. However, the problem with ADHD is that the criteria for all patients is the exact same while ADHD symptoms can vary based on gender, race, age, and culture. As with many other disorder criteria the guidelines fit a very specific group of individuals, which are cacuasisan boys in the age group of 13-18. This clearly doesn’t adhere to all races, but nonetheless it even manages to leave out every single age group. In an article published by Scientific America, author Lisa Rapaport speaks on how ADHD symptoms can present themselves for the very first time in adulthood, and how these symptoms can look very different then they do in children. She writes, “ People with adult ADHD may have more inattentive symptoms like being forgetful or having difficulty concentrating, where children with ADHD may have more hyperactive symptoms.” Here we see that with the age demographic ADHD presents itself in multiple manners. 

In the paper, “Top-down attention modulates auditory-evoked neural response in neurotypical, but not ADHD, young adults” Kwasa et al (2021), it is assumed that people when participating in tough auditory task that requires strong top-down attention, people with ADHD have a greater difficulty with performance and have weaker neural signatures of attentional control. Kwasa explains that the primary methodology included an auditory experiment using stimuli, streams of human speech, and trails with specific tasks. It was found that task performance is affected by stimulus features and attentional focus but not an individual's ADHD status. At the end of the study Kwasa explains how the results demonstrate how people vary widely in how they can use attention to modulate sensory responses based on tasked goals. 

ADHD is a broad disorder that attempts to umbrella many symptoms and criteria under one name. The disorder presents itself in a multitude of ways, and this needs to be accounted for in our healthcare systems today. Healthcare today is right at the brim of being more inclusive when it comes to diagnosis criteria for almost all disorders. However, they still have a long way to go in order to be fully inclusive of all people. ADHD is a great place to begin with inclusivity because of how many people it affects globally, and how common the behavior disorder is.

Works Cited 

24, M. (2018, May 24). Can ADHD appear for the first time in adulthood? Scientific American. Retrieved May 4, 2022, from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-adhd-appear-for-the-first-time-in-adulthood/ 

Kwasa, J.A., Noyce, A.L., Torres, L.M., & Shinn-Cunningham, B.G. (2021). Top-down attention modulates auditory-evoked neural responses in neurotypical, but not ADHD, young adults. bioRxiv.

Science’s Quest on Advancing Humankind While Simultaneously Curing Neurological Deficits

Science’s Quest on Advancing Humankind While Simultaneously Curing Neurological Deficits 

 

 

            The subject of neuroscience has been widely studied and throughout history multiple stances have been scrutinized and revolutionized. Many areas of neuroscience have simplified into multiple conduits ranging from chemistry to psychology, to cognitive or molecular relevance. All these STEM facets have rapidly intertwined with one another and more recently have been integrated with technology. Neuroscience has guided many fundamental experiments and inspired many new technological advances. Many are fascinated by the complex system of which the brain is composed and its ability (or inability) to communicate with the nervous system as well as how it operates individually. The fascination has revolutionized distinct areas of neuroscience, technology, medicine, engineering, psychology, chemistry, and even medicine; while also allowing these areas to merge and create new discoveries. These new discoveries have led to the advancement of biomedical appliances and pharmacological expansions. The vast amount of research is rapidly generating new developments proving to add promising value in aiding neuromuscular and neurodevelopmental disorders. 

 

            In the article "The effect of a nanofiber-hydrogel composite on neural tissue repair and regeneration in the contused spinal cord," researchers were able to engineer a nanofiber-hydrogel composite with the ability to perform interfacial bonding. This resulted in increased mechanical strength and porosity. Areas of damage or lesions on a spinal cord usually results in the loss of nervous tissue function. Typically, the nervous tissue is unable to heal itself or regenerate new tissues on its own. This experiment involved the use of an adult rat model of spinal cord contusion and the researchers investigated the mechanical support of the nanofiber-hydrogel composite and the effects on the neural tissue generation, through the presence of macrophages, blood vessels, axons, and neural-like cells. Oudega et al. were able to see the composite's effect and ability to limit spinal cord collapse while providing a microenvironment that is sufficient for cell infiltration and tissue formation. Along with this, the nanofiber-hydrogel composite facilitated the formation of new blood vessels, which is important for nervous tissue repair and regeneration. Other injectable materials that have previously been tested have had variable repair and recovery results. However, this composite has significant repair-supporting events leading to the invasion of cells and the formation of new structures where the contusion took place. The researchers propose further experiments involving the nanofiber-hydrogel composite and its use with cells and growth factors to maximize its repair effects, to see further regeneration and repair.

 

Another noteworthy recent advancement derives from Elon Musk and his project with Neuralink. Forbes magazine featured Elon Musk and his newest developments. The article outline’s that “several chronic and life-limiting conditions were cited as being potentially treatable by Neuralink - ranging from blindness, spinal cord injuries, memory loss, brain damage and even depression” (Alexiou, 2020). This has been notable all throughout many media outlets as it highlights the significant advancement and enormous statement that offers hope for many medical advancements. They point out that “the company’s major breakthrough appears to relate to the number of electrodes engaged (10x more than any other device) allowing for unprecedented levels of data and throughput” (Alexiou, 2020). Musk and his company have explicitly stated they not only are conducting advancements but rather also a cure that seeks to solve multiple neurological disabilities. They have spoken about rectifying paraplegia and allowing an individual to regain sensation and strength so they may walk with full capacity. Another notable statement has been remedying quadriplegia by means of a computer. Neurodivergent conditions such as Autism and it’s social/communication deficits are also being addressed in terms of being cured as well. Neuropsychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia or MDD are also topics being targeted. Regardless of many people’s hesitancy these experimental developments allow a sense of hope to anyone affected by these limitations or ailments. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References: 

Xiaowei Li, Chi Zhang, Agnes E. Haggerty, Jerry Yan, Michael Lan, Michelle Seu, Mingyu Yang, Megan M. Marlow, Inés Maldonado-Lasunción, Brian Cho, Zhengbing Zhou, Long Chen, Russell Martin, Yohshiro Nitobe, Kentaro Yamane, Hua You, Sashank Reddy, Da-Ping Quan, Martin Oudega, Hai-Quan Mao, (2020) The effect of a nanofiber-hydrogel composite on neural tissue repair and regeneration in the contused spinal cord

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0142961220302246?via%3Dihub

 

 

Alexiou, G. (2020, 09 03). Could Elon Musk’s Neuralink Be A Game-Changer For People With Disabilities?Retrieved from Forbes: https://www.forbes.com/sites/gusalexiou/2020/09/08/could-elon-musks-neuralink-be-a-game-changer-for-people-with-disabilities/?sh=3032cae05f97

            

 

 

 

Brain Plasticity in relation to Language and Learning

     The topic of neural plasticity is a complex and expansive one, which has been of great interest to cognitive neuroscience researchers for previous decades as it unlocks answers to the most convoluted processes the brain undertakes to sustain organisms as astute as humans. The study of bilingualism serves as an excellent model for neural plasticity, as the physiological effects of bilingualism show a dramatic increase in neural plasticity in different anatomical measures depending on several aspects of the bilingual experience. Previous studies have demonstrated increased plasticity, especially in those who had an earlier age of acquisition (AoA) of the language. The two articles Early bilingualism, language attainment, and brain development by Jonathan A. Berken et al., as well as Language experience modulates bilingual language control: The effect of proficiency, age of acquisition, and exposure on language switching by Michela Bonfieni et al. both allocate a great amount of focus on the impact AoA has on the anatomy of the brain and the individual's bilingual experience showing similar findings from their experimentation, but also diverge in several ways throughout their studies as we will see below. 

    Berken's review paper, Early bilingualism, language attainment, and brain development, is compromised of several separate studies performed by Berken et al. which piggyback on each other to reach well-grounded conclusions on the effects early versus late learning experiences have on the brain, using bilingualism as the model. The researchers initially divided the participants of this experiment into three groups; the simultaneous bilinguals (those who learned both languages before the age of 5), the sequential bilinguals (who learned their L2 after turning 5 years old), and monolinguals (the control group, speaking only one language). The researchers also set very concise standards and requirements for each of the groups, to check for as many controls as possible. For example, they set specific standards for the cutoff age of simultaneous bilinguals, and they issued questionnaires and individuals to assess language proficiency by evaluating vocabulary, syntax, fluency, as well as accent. This way, they could truly assign differences in brain structure and function found in the studies to different AoA stages as all different stimuli would be eliminated. 

    In one of the first experiments described, Neural Activation in Speech Production and Reading Aloud in Native and Non-Native Languages, Berken and his team aimed to determine the influence of age of acquisition on the brain regions known to be involved in speech production and reading. By the means of fMRI testing, the researchers drew several conclusions after recording brain activity while participants were reciting meaningful sentences in the languages French, and English. The maps showed that areas such as the motor cortex, Broca's area, and superior temporal areas, were activated in both bilingual groups. Moreover, the monolinguals recruited several other brain areas including those areas to read in French, as they only spoke English and required more cognitive work to achieve this task. Further testing revealed that late learners had more extensive activation in the premotor cortex, the IFG, and the fusiform gyrus than simultaneous bilinguals. Another important finding of the study revealed a positive correlation between AoA and BOLD signal, meaning there was more effort required in individuals who had a later AoA. The second study analyzed, Effects of Early and Late Bilingualism on Resting-State Functional Connectivity, studied participants at rest to find useful information on connections between brain areas in bilinguals. The researchers seeded the left IFG to look for connectivity between brain regions and found there were connections between the left IPL, the right IPL, as well as the right IFG with the left IFG. Furthermore, they found a negative correlation between AoA and the strength of these connections, meaning that connections were not as strong in participants who learned L2 later in life. This finding had major implications for the efficiency of learning at different stages of life, as all the areas showing connectivity with the IFG were areas of the brain that are well-associated with cognitive functions such as cognitive control. As efficiency is a major goal scientists try to comprehend in these mental processes, the study performed by Bonfieni is a good correlate to Berken's studies, as her team shows that daily exposure long after AoA produces higher language proficiency, and less mental effort to speak different languages. 

    In Bonfieni's study, her research team examined 83 participants divided into two groups. The participants were, similarly to Berken's experiment, assessed via a questionnaire to determine group placement. The participants were then asked to name pictures they were shown as quickly and accurately as possible. The researchers also controlled for the language being tested by acquiring individuals who were fluent in different languages, in order to see if this played a role in their findings. As such, they could determine participants' abilities to control languages (specifically their ability to switch between languages), and how that is shaped by linguistic experience. Based on the tasks given, individuals were assessed and it was found that the ability to switch between languages was modulated heavily by L2 proficiency. Furthermore, the data showed that persistent exposure to L2 showed greater abilities to switch between languages as well. While no brain analyses were run to determine brain activity during these experiments, the findings in Bonfieni's study seem to align with the findings from Berken's study. However, further experimentation could be done to confirm said findings by measuring specific brain activity. Both of these studies lead us a step closer to determining the most efficient methods of learning that are established in our brains based on our AoA, environmental stimuli, and many other factors impacting our learning experience.

                                                                            References

Berken, J. A., Gracco, V. L., & Klein, D. (2017). Early bilingualism, language attainment, and brain development. Neuropsychologia, 98, 220–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.08.031

Bonfieni, M., Branigan, H. P., Pickering, M. J., & Sorace, A. (2019). Language experience modulates bilingual language control: The effect of proficiency, age of acquisition, and exposure on language switching. Acta Psychologica, 193, 160–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.11.004

    

Will Virtual Reality Become Our New Normal?

    The year is 2040, you open your eyes after a good night’s rest and immediately answer emails, turn on the light, respond to texts, and make plans with friends- all without picking up your phone.

    The average American spends 7 hours and 4 minutes looking at screens each day, making up almost half of the time the average person is awake during the day. So, what difference would living life through virtual and augmented reality really have? It all started with the rapid progression of social media and smartphones, with Mark Zuckerberg paving a social media empire leading up to the development of Facebook and acquisition of Instagram. Zuckerberg’s access to the world’s most engaged-with social platforms led him to reach further- creating a new reality called “The Metaverse”. A reality that could be anything you want it to be, with the ability to simulate touch, smell, taste, sound, and imagery almost as detailed as the real thing. The virtual Metaverse was initially meant to be facilitated through the use of virtual reality headsets, but with the ongoing development of brain-computer interfaces (BCI), and Elon Musk’s ‘Neuralink’, this ‘virtual’ reality could be a lot less virtual than we initially thought.

BCI’s consist of invasive implantation of electrode grids which record neurons in the brain as they fire. The electrode recordings then work with pre-established algorithms to ‘decode thoughts and intentions’. Prior to much recent commercial engagement, brain machine interfaces and BCI’s were primarily developed and intended for use by individuals with disabilities.

    Joseph Vukov PhD, a neuroethicist investigating the morality regarding recent developments in BCI, discussed the different implications of brain reading devices. Vukov’s lecture addressed medical implications of BCI’s, particularly how they aid disabled individuals with movement and communication. Aside from manufacturing a new reality, brain computer interfaces can be used to decode intentions of movement and communication; which could change lives. On the other hand, the concept of controlling computers with our brains sparked the interest of investors/entrepreneurs hoping to change the way we interact with our devices. Typing with our thoughts could be something useful to everyone, right? Elon Musk thought just that when he developed Neuralink’s brain chip, a BCI that could soon replace our smartphones and smartwatches while simultaneously ‘curing neurological diseases like Parkinson’s’.  

    With the ongoing development of a virtual universe, brain-computer interfaces are the perfect candidate for bridging the real world and the metaverse. Companies involved in the development of the Metaverse have been investing in technology that allows thought controlled devices noninvasively. This means that using brain-computer interfaces to enter a virtual universe could be as easy as putting on an EEG-recording headband and AR glasses. Noninvasive headbands work similarly to implants like Neuralink by recording EEG signals and decoding them through algorithms. Alongside the noninvasiveness, EEGs are cheaper, more accessible, and easier to study when compared to brain chip implants. The accessibility of noninvasive BCIs could mean that the metaverse as a new reality is closer than we think. By the time Neuralink becomes more readily accessible by continuing to engage in human trials and gaining approval from the FDA, its widespread use in tandem with the Metaverse is an obvious byproduct. 

Source

       The development of using BCI’s such as the noninvasive headband and Neuralink in a virtual universe illustrate the significance of technology recreating what reality really is. What was once excessive screen time will soon become our normal, everyday reality.

Sources Referenced

Screen Time Statistics

The brain-reading devices helping paralyzed people to move, talk and touch

Elon Musk says Neuralink's brain chip will be 'similar in complexity level to smart watches' 

Snap’s Latest Acquisition Is a Bet on a Metaverse Controlled By Thoughts

“Start Them Early” – Optimal Cognitive Periods for Language Acquisition

Hello. Bonjour. Olá. Communication is one of the most important, if not the most important, component in a society. A newborn’s cry is their main form of expression; it is how they say they are hungry, tired, or in pain. A child’s tantrums are a portrayal of frustration, demonstrative enough to allow the disregard of words. As adults, humans perfect their communication skills to appeal to their peers, to sound confident, to be clear and concise. That is all possible through the proper use of language. Throughout history, numerous languages, formed by a plethora of sounds and varying structures, have been established as large communities accepted them. Some countries have even elected more than one official language as a display of inclusivity for their citizens and their preferred methods of communication. A large portion of the world’s population speaks more than one language fluently. Individuals might have learned from their parents or by watching television. It is even possible that language acquisition made up a large part of their primary academic curriculum. Others may have attended certain university courses in hopes of developing such abilities. Regardless of how an individual comes to learn a language, it is important to note that research provides evidence of optimal periods in language development. Thus, it remains vital for such dedicated individuals, as well as their family members, to be aware of this timeline. Becoming bilingual, or even multilingual, is a difficult feat for most; however, it seems that those who wait longer to cultivate a secondary language are at a greater disadvantage. 

A study conducted at the University of Potsdam in Germany by Veríssimo et al. intended to explore the effects of learning a second language at varying life stages on the mechanical processes involved in the recognition of complex words. The authors of the research article, “Selective Effects of Age of Acquisition on Morphological Priming: Evidence for a Sensitive Period,” explained that the Turkish-German bilingual participants, who learned German at differing ages, engaged in a reaction test which would assess their abilities to identify German words. Accuracy rates and mean reaction times were calculated to evaluate priming effects from German inflected and derived forms on the recognition of complex words. The researchers hypothesized that inflectional rules will ultimately appear challenging to retain, as opposed to derivational rules, when the secondary language is introduced later in life. The experiment revealed an effect of age of language acquisition on masked morphological priming. The collected data demonstrated that inflectional priming began to decrease past the age of five within the participants. The findings support the authors’ hypothesis as the data showed a modulation of the processing of inflected forms in contrast to the processing of derived words due to age of acquisition (Veríssimo et al, 315-324).

Further proof can be found in a literature review published recently by Berken et al. which focuses on the existing data regarding optimal periods in language development. The information presented accentuates the neurological disparities between simultaneous and sequential bilinguals. A series of experimenters gathered evidence through the use of varying neuroimaging techniques (i.e. PET, fMRI, MRI) that demonstrates why an array of nested optimal periods are believed to determine the likelihood of language acquisition. The aforementioned terms have fluctuating onsets, offsets, and durations which are regulated by pre-programmed molecular signals and sensory experiences. The concept of neuroplasticity, which refers to the brain’s ability to adapt throughout an individual’s lifespan, proves how skill attainment causes the brain to reform and restructure as the result of practice and experience. However, the age at which a skill is acquired also influences the brain's functional structure as well as its capacity to process information efficiently. The authors of the review, "Early Bilingualism, Language Attainment, and Brain Development," concluded from the presented data that brain function and structure appear most efficient when two languages are introduced simultaneously during the neonatal period. Additionally, an individual’s cerebral plasticity seems to decline with age, thus, when they attempt to develop a second language later in life, the level of difficulty increases for an already complicated endeavor (Berken et al., 220-225). While it is possible to learn new forms of communication at an advanced age, it will certainly not be an easy feat. Therefore, if you or any of your loved ones wish to incorporate more languages into the family dynamic, it is always best to get an early start. 

Works Cited

Veríssimo, J., Heyer, V., Jacob, G., & Clahsen, H. (2017). Selective effects of age of acquisition on morphological priming: Evidence for a sensitive period. Language Acquisition, 25(3), 315–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/10489223.2017.1346104

Berken, J. A., Gracco, V. L., & Klein, D. (2017). Early bilingualism, language attainment, and brain development. Neuropsychologia, 98, 220–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.08.031