Hormone Therapy Effects on the Hippocampus

 Many patients who undergo chemotherapy report problems with their concentration and memory. These problems can be attributed to the use of a system approach to kill the cancer which can of course damage cells in the nervous system. Researchers are exploring a more concentrated approach to cancer which involves treating the endocrine system.  

Nearly 20 percent of women in the United States are diagnosed with breast cancer every year. Mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes cause women to be art a higher risk for inheriting breast and ovarian cancer. There are other factors such as environmental factors and lifestyle that can also make a person more susceptible to breast cancer. Factors such as early menstruation and increased age which leads to menopause can increase the risks of cancer. Thankfully, as science advances along with awareness, researchers are creating more effective and personalized treatment options such as hormone therapy.  

In “Perimenopausal use of hormone therapy is associated with enhanced memory and hippocampal function later in life” by Pauline Maki et al, discuss how women begin hormone therapy treatment to lessen the symptoms of perimenopause which aids in preventing other health problems including, but not limited to, breast cancer, heart disease, and memory. Their research reveals that women who received hormone therapy had greater memory and hippocampal function in their later stages of life. The women who were treated had an increase in areas of activation compared to their counterparts who were not treated. The women were told to recite things verbally, a memory retrieval practice, which allows for the conclusion that “alterations in brain function associated with perimenopausal initiation of HT are favorable.” 

Many scientists can agree that over time there is a loss of the size of the hippocampus due to Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. Alexis Wnuk and two other researchers from the University of Pittsburg and the Syracuse University wrote “Estrogens, hormone therapy, and hippocampal volume in postmenopausal women” as a review on whether hormone therapy has a positive or negative effect on hippocampal volumes later in life. Their research suggests that women who received hormone therapy have higher volumes in their hippocampus then those who did not. Therefore, “hormone therapy might have protective or proliferative effects on hippocampal volume.”  

The data between perimenopausal women and postmenopausal women is similar therefore it is very safe to conclude that hormone therapy can improve and maintain cognitive functions. More of the data emphasizes how much more positive the effects of the therapy are if treatment begins after menopause. However, there is still more research that should be conducted to understand brain aging in women with breast cancer who are treated with hormone therapy.  

References  

https://bachlab.pitt.edu/sites/default/files/Wnuk2012.pdf 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3046212/ 

Effects of Sleep and Cardiovascular Health

    Effects of Sleep and Cardiovascular Health

    Disease can be manifested as a result of sleep, or the lack thereof, in a multitude of ways. About 35.2% of American adults sleep less than seven hours per night (Sleep Foundation, 2023). The implications in the lack of sleep are countless, but have detrimental effects on bodily systems such as the cardiovascular system. The studies are increasingly providing further evidence for the implications that a lack of sleep causes on the body. In fact, sleep has been a recent addition to the American Heart Association's heart health checklist in June of 2022 (American Heart Association, 2022). 

    As Dr. Phyllis Zee mentioned in her lecture and in her and her colleagues' paper "Circadian Disruption and Human Health" (2021), cardiovascular function is timed in accordance with the circadian system, therefore, a disruption would have significant implications on cardiovascular health (Fishbein et al., 2021). For example, there has been links found with circadian misalignment and arrhythmias, hypertension and inflammation that can cause a more severe stroke, and increased resting heart rates (Fishbein et. al., 2021). 

    Additionally, NBC has recently reported that improved sleep has resulted in lower risks for a heart attack. Insomnia is a sleep disorder that is diagnosed when there is frequent and prolonged difficulties in falling asleep, staying asleep, or are deprived from good quality of sleep frequently. It has been reported that people with insomnia are 69% more susceptible to having a heart attack (NBC, 2023). Furthermore, people who sleep five hours or less are 59% more likely to have a heart attack than those who get the recommended eight hours of sleep (NBC, 2023). NBC also mentions an additional study that suggests that healthy sleeping habits can not only improve heart health, but also life expectancy: additional 4.7 years for men, and 2.4 years for women (NBC, 2023). It was also found that 8% of deaths could have been prevented by better sleeping habits, irrespective of the cause (NBC, 2023). 

    As irregularities with sleep and thus disruptions in circadian rhythms, such as insomnia, become more prevalent, it is important that better sleeping habits are implemented. Cardiovascular-related issues, such as heart disease, remain to be the top cause of death in the United States. However, better sleep quality can improve many components that are related to cardiovascular diseases. Sleep quality can be improved by simple adjustments such as stress-relief and sleeping in a darker setting (i.e. turning off lights, covering any outside light, eliminating phone use prior to sleeping, etc.). 

References: 

American Heart Association adds sleep to Cardiovascular Health Checklist. American Heart Association. (2022, June 29). Retrieved from https://newsroom.heart.org/news/american-heart-association-adds-sleep-to-cardiovascular-health-checklist  

Carroll, L. (2023, February 24). Beating insomnia for a healthier heart: How improving sleep quality can lower risk. NBCNews.com. Retrieved from https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/beating-insomnia-lower-risk-heart-attack-rcna72016 

Fishbein, A. B., Knutson, K. L., & Zee, P. C. (2021). Circadian disruption and human health. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 131(19). https://doi.org/10.1172/jci148286 

Suni, E. (2023, February 13). Sleep statistics - facts and data about sleep 2023. Sleep Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.sleepfoundation.org/how-sleep-works/sleep-facts-statistics#references-83484  

Social Media Challenges Whether Beauty is Objective or Subjective

    The debate on beauty has been a polarizing question of interest since ancient history. Plato and Aristotle philosophized about it and in 2023 it has turned into the presence or absence of a like on a picture. The like feature present on numerous social media platforms, specifically Instagram, has effectively transformed the debate on whether beauty is objective or subjective from something that was theorized with members of the community into a vicious cycle of liking and scrolling in solitude. 

            In the presentation “How the Brain Causes Social Polarization: The Example of Aesthetic Values,” Norberto Grzywacz discussed pleasing aesthetic perceptions regarding neuroanatomy and how those perceptions mold an individual’s discernment of beauty. Vision is processed in the visual cortex; however, beauty is processed by four different parts of the brain in tandem: the rostral cingulate, ventral basal ganglia, anterior insula, and orbitofrontal cortex. The orbitofrontal cortex is where Grzywacz proposed aesthetic value is assigned. The brain prefers an average amount of symmetry, balance, and complexity and these components have a presence in the beauty standard across different cultures and time periods. Although, culture can also influence what is perceived as beautiful based on two things: different cultures provide different inputs and social interactions within cultures are different. Our environment has the capability of shaping what is perceived as beautiful because our brains like to align with those who have similar views as our own. 

            

            Social media platforms also shape our perceptions on our individual beliefs of beauty. The endless string of images is tailored not only by what we choose to see but also things that are put onto our screens by companies that mainstream societal values. In the article, “The malleability of beauty: perceptual adaptation,” Mayra B.C. Maymore MD et al. discuss the effects of living in a “selfie-culture.” In today’s society, moderate symmetry, balance, and complexity are indeed hallmarks of the American beauty standard and are seen in the pictures repeated in our Instagram feeds and personal body expectations. One of Grzywacz’s main research conclusions was “aesthetic values are organized and polarized across society,” which parallels with the overwhelming presence of a beauty standard that plays a role in what makeup or muscles look the best in a social media post and has the power to change without a moment’s notice. Trends, for example, present new standards but are only around for short periods of time and separate those who follow such trends and those that do not. Society is polarized in assertive aspects such as politics, religion, and race but is also assertive in nuanced facets as well, such as facial alterations and how high someone holds their head around others.

 

            In conclusion, the debate about whether beauty is objective and possessed by something or subjective and changes with each look has remained a constant part of society and most likely will not be changing anytime in the future. Neuroanatomy, cultures, societies, and historical time periods have been referenced and the consensus remains that perception is able to determine whether something is beautiful. A flaw that is prominent in this consensus is that people believe they are the end all be all when it comes to their surroundings even though those surroundings have been there for the past thousands of years and will continue to be there when we are all gone. A question I want to leave you with is if something is perceived as beautiful then deemed as not, by the same individual, was it ever beautiful or does it not stop being so because it was not the thing that changed? 

 

 

 

References 

 

Grzywacz, Norberto. “How the Brain Causes Social Polarization: The Example of Aesthetic Values.” Zoom, Loyola University Chicago, February 14^th, 2023. 

 

Maymone, Mayra B. C. “The Malleability of Beauty: Perceptual Adaptation.” Clinics in Dermatology., vol. 37, no. 5, 2019, pp. 592–96.

How Circadian Disruption Affects Mental Illness

Our circadian rhythms play a salient role in controlling many aspects of our lives. Having a consistent sleep-wake cycle has various benefits such as maintaining a regular eating schedule, regulating healthy weight, reducing stress, and regulating mood. Individuals who do not have a set circadian rhythm may experience excessive daytime sleepiness, irritability, memory and decision-making issues, as well as decreased focus throughout the day. In the article, “Circadian disruption and mental health,” Phyllis Zee et al., discuss how circadian disruption increases disease severity by using a bench-to-bedside approach.  

The researchers discuss the cardiometabolic, neurological, psychiatric, and immune disorders that are affected by circadian disruption. A circadian disruption happens when something disrupts our 24-hour sleep-wake cycle. Disruption can result from social and work environments, light/dark exposure, timing of sleep and meals, to name a few. Often times, people who identify as night-owls tend to experience more disruption in their circadian rhythms due to work, school, personal, or social responsibilities during the daytime. All these factors that lead to circadian disruption are tightly linked to mood and mental health disorders. Researchers discuss how unregulated light exposure is closely related to depression and stress. Additionally, individuals experience schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and season affective disorder. During seasonal affective disorder, there is little light outside, which makes it an easier cause for disruption. One of the main factors that is at the stem of this issue is individuals being exposed to light at the wrong hours.  

 

In another article, “Circadian rhythm disruption and human health,” by William H. Walker II et al., researchers discuss how over the past century the day and night boundaries have been obscured due to exposure of electrical light at night, and how this results in behavioral and psychiatric mental health issues. The researchers discuss how the major cue for individuals to distinguish between day and night is through light; so, exposure to light at night disrupts the body and mind’s perception of daytime and nighttime. This article also gives an example of seasonal affective disorder and how people may experience dysthymia in winter. Dysthymia is persistent depression disorder. In the summer, people may experience euthymia, which is a more “normal,” positive, state of mind. Researchers also say that circadian disruption is a “state marker” for bipolar disorder. In addition to this, they found that disrupted circadian rhythms can negatively affect patients diagnosed with schizophrenia. This is due to dysregulation of the core clock genes that may not be the cause of schizophrenia but can affect the progression or worsen the severity of the illness.  

 

Both articles discuss how circadian disruption can lead to various mental illnesses or worsen current ones for patients who have already been diagnosed. More specifically, both articles highlight exposure to light during nighttime. However, the article, “Circadian rhythm disruption and human health” offers a different approach to using electronic devices in a positive way. They state that these devices can be used to help treat some of the illnesses mentioned. The example of hand-held devices and wrist-worn devices is given, and that they could be used to monitor the psychiatric state of individuals using them.  

References:

Fishbein, A. B., Knutson, K.L., & Zee, P.C. (2021). Circadian disruption and human health. Journal of Clinical Investigation

Walker, W.H., Walton, J.C., DeVries, A.C. et al. Circadian rhythm disruption and mental health. Transl Psychiatry 10, 28 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0694-0

Does Disruption in Circadian Rhythm Increase our Risk for Sleep Apnea?

    What is the association between circadian rhythm disruption and an increased likelihood of sleep apnea, and how might this relationship inform strategies for preventing and treating sleep apnea?

    We had a research seminar on circadian rhythm disruption and human health by Phyllis Zee. Phyllis Zee's research on circadian disruption and human health highlights the connection between disruptions to the body's natural 24-hour clock and various health disorders. Zee's work shows that disruptions to circadian rhythms can cause sleep disorders, metabolic disorders, cardiovascular disease, cancer, mood disorders, and other health problems. This link exists because the circadian rhythm affects many physiological processes, including hormone production, metabolism, and immune function. Zee's research emphasizes the importance of maintaining a healthy circadian rhythm to prevent or manage these health disorders.

    Disruption of circadian rhythms can affect the timing and quality of sleep and can also lead to changes in the physiological processes that regulate breathing during sleep. Specifically, circadian rhythms help regulate the levels of hormones and other factors that influence the tone of the upper airway muscles and the responsiveness of the respiratory control system. When circadian rhythms are disrupted, these factors can become imbalanced, leading to increased airway collapsibility, and decreased respiratory drive during sleep. This, in turn, can increase a person's likelihood of developing sleep apnea or exacerbating existing sleep apnea symptoms.

    Sleep apnea is a sleep disorder where patients experience interruptions in breathing during sleep, which can lead to disruptions in the sleep-wake cycle and a reduction in sleep quality. This can cause daytime sleepiness, fatigue, and other health problems. Circadian rhythm disruption can also affect sleep quality and exacerbate sleep apnea symptoms. Disruptions to the body's natural 24-hour clock, such as those caused by shift work, jet lag, or artificial light exposure at night, can alter the timing and duration of sleep, making it harder to fall asleep and stay asleep. Moreover, some studies have suggested that sleep apnea may disrupt circadian rhythm. For example, individuals with sleep apnea may have lower levels of melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleep and wakefulness and is closely tied to the circadian rhythm.

    One research study that demonstrates a connection between disrupted circadian rhythms and increased likelihood of sleep apnea is "Circadian Rhythms, Metabolism, and Sleep Disruptions: Moving from Associations to Mechanisms to Identify Novel Strategies for Reducing Risk of Metabolic Dysregulation and Sleep Disorders" by Morris et al. (2019). The study reviewed several epidemiological and experimental studies that found an association between circadian rhythm disruption and an increased likelihood of sleep apnea and other metabolic and sleep disorders. For example, some studies found that shift workers and individuals with irregular sleep schedules were more likely to have sleep apnea and other sleep disorders, potentially due to the adverse effects of circadian rhythm disruption on respiratory control and upper airway muscle tone. Other studies have shown that interventions to regulate circadian rhythms, such as bright light therapy and melatonin supplementation, can improve sleep quality and reduce sleep apnea severity. Overall, this study stresses the importance of considering circadian rhythm disruptions as a risk factor for sleep apnea and other related conditions and suggests that interventions to restore normal circadian rhythms could be an effective strategy for preventing and treating sleep apnea.

    Overall, treating circadian rhythm disruption may be an essential strategy for reducing sleep apnea cases, and this area warrants further investigation and attention in the healthcare field.

Circadian Rhythm and Mental Health

     Sleep and the circadian rhythm are a significant area of research in the neuroscience field. Research on sleep has revealed its importance on both mental and physical health. Phyllis C. Zee's article looked at the long-term effects of an obstructed circadian rhythm. The New York Times article by Haley Weiss looks at the trend of using magnesium supplements to aid anxiety, as a means to get better sleep. 

    In the research article by Zee, a divergence from the typical sleep wake cycle is considered a disturbance. The results of this study indicate that serotonin receptors affect the circadian rhythm. A disruption in the circadian rhythm was observed when serotonin receptors were manipulated, indicating an association between poor sleep and symptoms of anxiety. A link between sleep disturbance caused by environmental factors, such as daylight savings time, and misaligned levels of cortisol and melatonin. 

    The New York Times article by Haley Weiss highlights a recent TikTok trend of using magnesium supplements as a way to cure insomnia and ease anxiety. Magnesium glycinate is highlighted as the latest supplement to ease anxiety by increasing sleep quality. This news article mentions a recent study by Forrest H. Nielsen that suggests a link between poor sleep and magnesium deficiency. The magnesium glycinate is the more bioavailable form of magnesium and is the over-the-counter form of magnesium supplements, typically in tablet form. The theory discussed in Weiss' article highlights the effects of magnesium on muscle cramping, as magnesium is linked to the process of muscle contraction. Easing muscle cramps can lead to increased relaxation, which allows for improved sleep quality. The study discussed linked magnesium supplements with easing symptoms of insomnia, and therefore symptoms of anxiety. 

    Both of these articles tie disturbances in sleep to negative effects on mental health. Zee et al. describes how symptoms of depression can increase with irregular circadian rhythm. Weiss discusses several studies relating to the theory of magnesium glycinate and its effects on sleep quality. These articles suggest a link between increased sleep quality and improving symptoms of psychiatric disorders. 

Fishbein, A. B., Knutson, K. L., & Zee, P. C. (2021). Circadian disruption and human health. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 131(19). https://doi.org/10.1172/jci148286

Weiss, H. (2023, February 28). Magnesium glycinate is TikTok's new favorite sleep aid. Time. Retrieved March 3, 2023, from https://time.com/6258780/magnesium-glycinate-sleep-anxiety-tiktok/ 

The Importance of Limiting Exposure for Tremendous Sleep

    Light exposure can disrupt the body’s natural production of the chemical compound melatonin. Melatonin is a natural hormone that is very common in mammals, its primary function is to aid in sleep and recovery. Children however have a very different anatomy than the average adult. Dr. Perri Klass, M.D. reports that in an experiment researcher fond that bright light exposure to children, age 3-5, right before bedtime suppressed melatonin production by almost 90 percent and the effects continued to persist even when the children were shifted to a different exposure room on a different day. Children have larger pupils, and their lens are a lot clearer. The lens allows light to come into the eye and trigger the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Light exposure is registered by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a small region in the hypothalamus. It is receiving signals from the eyes in the presence or absence of light thus being a major contributor of the how the body controls a normal sleep-wake cycle.

    Sleep and sleep problems are becoming a primary issue in this new modern era of children, it’s the belief of many experts in the field that exposure to light should be main concern. Dr. Klass herself preaches importance of prioritizing a dark and quiet sleep environment for children to promote healthy sleep habits. Light exposure also is hazardous to circadian rhythm development. 

    Another leader in sleep science Dr. Phyllis Zee wrote, “Circadian Disruption and Human Health” also believe that even a small amount of light is enough to trigger the body’s autonomic nervous system, which is responsible to cool down during sleep while the body moves into a parasympathetic state. However dur to this shift the nervous system becomes more alert and active. The disruption in levels of melatonin can lead to several diseases, including cancer and diabetes.  To minimize these risks, it is crucial to avoid using electronic devices before bedtime, use blackout curtains or blinds to block out light, and keep the bedroom as dark as possible. To maintain a healthy lifestyle and protect ourselves it is important to limit light exposure prior to sleeping.

Works Cited

Klass, Perri. “To Help Children Sleep, Go Dark.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 5 Mar. 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/05/well/family/children-sleep-light-melatonin.html?searchResultPosition=4. 

Fishbein, Anna B., et al. “Circadian Disruption and Human Health.” Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 131, no. 19, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1172/jci148286.