Gesture Utilization Across Species Lines

Gesture is a common utilization in speech, to describe and elaborate on what is being said verbally. It may even come so naturally to us that we don’t realize the extent of the impact it has on our communication. In children, gestures are subconsciously used to enhance memory and learning in the long term. It is believed that the mental mechanisms of learning, speech, and gesture are all related to each other in intricate and important ways.

For the research article “Language Proficiency Impacts the Benefits of Co-Speech Gesture for Narrative Understanding Through a Visual Attention Mechanism” by Natalia Zielinski and Elizabeth Wakefield, a study was completed that tested how much the addition of gesture benefitted a listener, based on age and language proficiency. The subjects, 17 bilingual children between the ages of six and eight, were read a story in one of two languages -- English or Polish -- which was accompanied by no gesture, matched gesture, or mismatched gesture. Matched gesture is redundant with speech, essentially repeating what was said, but in gesture. Mismatched gesture is gesture that provides additional information to what was said, rather than information found in the speech. The children were then asked to reproduce the story points, which produced quantifiable recall scores. The results of the study show that all of the children, who were reported as being more proficient in English, remembered the most English story points without gesture, and the most Polish story points were remembered when in conjunction with matched gesture. In the language with lower proficiency, the kids used the gesture to help determine the meaning of what was being said. This shows that gesture deeply benefits language learning.

In a New York Times article recently released called “The Animals Are Talking. What Does It Mean?” by Sonia Shah, a very similar idea is addressed. An important part of the article addresses Cat Hobaiter, a scientist who works with great apes, some of our closest living relatives, and studies the gestures of her subjects. In the gestures recorded between the great apes she studies, a decently high amount are actually legible to us humans. Hobaiter has used her study techniques on pre-verbal children, toddlers of one or two years of age, and found 40-50 matching gestures that indicated the same, or very similar meanings between species. She also put videos of ape gestures online for adult humans to try to decode or define, and the correct responses from people was found at a rate “significantly higher than expected by chance”, as Hobaiter and her fellows reported in a paper for PLOS Biology.

Though these articles address different species, and different reasons for gesture, they match in the idea that gesture is subconscious, and has legitimate meaning in use. Whether gesture is the main source of communication, or just an additional resource, research from around the world is concluding that gesture plays an important role in communication.




Sources

Shah, Sonia. “The Animals Are Talking. What Does It Mean?” The New York Times, The New York Times, 20 Sept. 2023, www.nytimes.com/2023/09/20/magazine/animal-communication.html.




Zielinski, N., & Wakefield, E. M. (2021). Language Proficiency Impacts the Benefits of Co-Speech Gesture for Narrative Understanding Through a Visual Attention Mechanism. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 43(43). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/63r5d3qq

ASD and Learning: Motor Region Dysfunctions

 Autism Spectrum Disorder

ASD, or autism spectrum disorder, is one of the most severe neurodevelopmental disorders that is diagnosed in children, specifically targeting boys (they are five times more likely to have the disease than girls). It is characterized by a lack of communication skills and deficits in social behaviors and interactions, as well as repetitive and stereotyped movements (Nevid, 2018). Children have a mean age of diagnosis of six years old, however this diagnosis period ranges with each child. As infants, children with autism will seem neurotypical in their behaviors and interactions with the environment, however as they get older and continue to develop, certain signs (such as rejecting affection or wanting to play by themselves) begin to manifest. They do not appreciate change, and will not deviate from a daily set schedule, since their tasks are predictable and safe. 

Naturally, many parents fear how their autistic child may learn or behave in a school setting, since their view on the world and how they approach problems vary significantly when compared to neurotypical children their age. One major difference between children with ASD and neurotypicals is their ability to gesture or understand the movements behind it. 

Gestures in Learning: Motor Cortex

For learning, gestures are important. In the research article, “Learning math by hand: The neural effects of gesture-based instruction in 8-year-old children” by Elizabeth M. Wakefield et al. there is an emphasis placed on this concept of gesture and its possible function as a vital tool in facilitating learning in neurotypical children. Since gestures are a form of action, it would make sense for the motor systems to be activated in the brain when these actions are produced; when pairing these gestures with information, the actions become representations, guiding the process of learning and memorizing certain material. In many ways, pairing gestures with new information is a form of associative learning, aiding in memory storage and retrieval as well. Through the fMRI studies conducted, it was concluded that gesture does help children in learning, especially with mathematical problem solving, because it engages the motor system. When children learned how to solve math problems through speech and gesture, there was greater activation in various neural regions compared to children that learned to solve problems through speech alone. This is true for neurotypical kids, however would autistic children differ, since their brain structures and neural networks are functionally different?

With the research conducted by Mosconi and Sweeney in their article, “Sensorimotor dysfunction as primary features of autism spectrum disorders”, the main focus of their work was to assess potential deficits that children with ASD may have in their motor cortex or motor association areas of the brain. It was found that due to the disorder, many different regions of the brain that are important in motor control and planning are negatively affected, including the cortico-cerebellar, fronto-striatal, and fronto-parietal pathways (Mosconi & Sweeney, 2015). As mentioned with Wakefield’s study, the act of gesturing becomes paired with information, which leads to learning. However, with these deficits in the motor regions of the brain in ASD individuals, how would they be able to learn through this process? If the motor systems and brain regions involved in motor control are dysfunctional, how is there a possibility to recruit gestures? Through both of these studies, it can be concluded that it is much more difficult for ASD children to recruit learning mechanisms that involve motor skills, such as gestures, due to structural and functional neuronal differences compared to neurotypical children. 

Takeaways

With children on the autism spectrum, we know they have brain functional differences that lead to difficulties in their learning capacity. Parents are worried for a good reason, because the traditional methods of instruction, using hand gestures and encouraging students to do the same, might not be as effective for children with ASD. To combat this dissonance in learning ability, if there are enough resources available, educators and members of the school should create an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) for their autistic students to tailor the classroom programs to their needs and goals (“Individualized Education Plan (IEP),” 2020). The plan should address all areas that a child may need additional support in, such as specific functional or social skills in the classroom. It is a means for children with ASD to receive a proper education, without the weight of their disorder pulling them back from success. 

Works Cited

Individualized Education Plan (IEP). (2020). Autism Society. https://www.autism-society.org/living-with- autism/academic-success/individualized-education-plan-iep/

Mosconi, M. W., Sweeney, J. A. (2015). Sensorimotor dysfunction as primary features of autism spectrum disorders. Science China Life Sciences, 58, 1016-1023. 10.1007/s11427-015-4894-4

Nevid, J. S., Rathus, S. A., Greene, B. (2018). Abnormal psychology in a changing world. Pearson, 10, 138.

Don’t Overthink It: Could Higher Executive Functions Inhibit Foreign Language Ability?

It is well known that children are much better at learning languages than adults. After all, it is exceedingly rare for one to master a language to the extent of one’s native one, thinking and dreaming in one learned later in life. Nelson Mandela famously said, “If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart.”

One paper sought to compile research on this very topic, finding many interesting details about bilingualism and brain development (Berken et al., 2017). One such finding is that the first few months are crucial in phoneme (the sounds of a language) acquisition, and that the speaking of various sounds and babbles in a tongue that will grow to be indistinguishable to that of a native speaker solidify as early as one year of age.

The exact reason that humans lose this ability to take on a new language like our native one is unknown, and there are many possible explanations. One may be simple necessity and opportunity, that as infants we both require learning the language around us to communicate basic needs and have little else to do or devote brain power towards. A common theory is that young children’s minds are especially malleable, and that the increased neuroplasticity that comes with youth is why learning languages becomes increasingly difficult as one ages.

A recent study, however, hints at an entirely different conclusion. The University of Liverpool conducted a study that focused on the language ability of non-native speakers, comparing sober participants to those who consumed a low-dose of alcohol (Renner et al., 2017). Surprisingly, despite controlling for a placebo effect and finding no change in self-reported language ability, native speakers of the language in question blindly tended to rate those in the alcohol consuming group with significantly higher conversational scores!

This surely came as a surprise. Alcohol is well-known for inhibiting what are known as ‘executive functions’, things such as memory, attention, comprehension, alertness, and pronunciation. This is why we picture a forgetful, sleepy, inattentive, slurring person when we imagine somebody who has had a lot to drink. While the study was notably a small amount of alcohol- comparable to a pint of beer for an average man- it seems counterintuitive that even slight inhibition of the previously mentioned functions would result in better performance in speaking a foreign language. Many of the things we consider ‘executive functions’ are things we consider key to speaking a learned language. What could be the cause of this finding?

The study admittedly offers that the anxiety suppressing effects of alcohol could be the source of the findings. A small amount of alcohol tends to make most people more social and less nervous, which could have resulted in more casual and natural language. While this is likely partially to blame for the findings, I suggest something else. That the suppression of these executive functions is precisely what allows for better language abilities rather than being a side-effect that is overcome by alcohol’s more social effects.

While it’s true that memory recall and pattern recognition are what comes to mind when we think about a foreign language, it’s important to recognize that it may not be that way for an infant- those most adept at learning languages of all humans (broadly). An infant is not an acute pattern recognizing and alert genius; they wield a still developing brain that even at its best is much less intelligent than a heavily intoxicated adult. The mentioned study implies that partially inhibiting these executive functions allows the human mind to take a step closer to its natural language-learning state; more of a blank canvas than refined machinery.

It’s hard to say what this could mean for the future of language education and instruction if these findings are supported, particularly if the anxiety reducing effects of alcohol can be controlled for. Should students in high-school Spanish take a shot of vodka before their lesson? No, probably not. But it is worth exploring the fact that the logical, pattern based method with which we teach and learn languages is very different from how an infant naturally learns, and that a more immersive, less analytical method may lead to better and faster results. Maybe it’s time we started learning with our hearts instead of our heads. But maybe it also means that shotgunning a White Claw before your next foreign language final isn’t as bad of an idea as it might seem.

References

Berken, J. A., Gracco, V. L., & Klein, D. (2017). Early bilingualism, language attainment, and brain development. Neuropsychologia, 98, 220-227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.08.031

Renner, F., Kersbergen, I., Field, M., & Werthmann, J. (2017). Dutch courage? Effects of acute alcohol consumption on self-ratings and observer ratings of foreign language skills. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 32(1), 116-122. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881117735687

The Child Brain on Ritalin: Effective Treatment or Early Form of Addiction?

ADHD: Child Neurodevelopmental Disorder

    ADHD, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is among the most common yet multifaceted neurodevelopmental disorders in children. It is characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that severely interferes with daily functioning and subsequent development (Nevid, 2018). Following typical progression, symptoms of ADHD begin to manifest before the age of 12 and are present in two or more settings for 6 months. However, one key component for individuals diagnosed with this disorder is that no two children are alike in the presentation of their behaviors, introducing a continuum or spectrum of ADHD rather than the typical rigid categories that are often portrayed. Based on this idea of an ADHD spectrum, treatment approaches to alleviate the debilitating symptoms are individualized and change based on the severity level of each child. 

    When discussing treatment approaches, the most commonly implemented drugs for alleviating ADHD symptoms are psychostimulants, such as methylphenidate and amphetamine, which aim to increase the low levels of dopamine in the brain. Although there are significant benefits, there is abundant backlash from the community around the implementation of drug regimens in children. Due to the rapid spread of misinformation, many parents believe that with psychostimulants, their children are at greater risk of future substance abuse and addiction driven behaviors (Wolpert, 2022). Therefore, many children are not placed on drug therapy, despite the scientific evidence advocating for its benefits in improving cognitive functioning skills and attenuation to relevant stimuli.

Addiction Potential: Ritalin

    Drugs of abuse, including psychostimulants, share a common theme of addiction potential and are marked by drug seeking behaviors. In the research article, “Opioid-induced rewards, locomotion, and dopamine activation: A proposed model for control by mesopontine and rostromedial tegmental neurons”, Stephan Steidl et al. introduces how opioid drugs interact and stimulate several brain regions and pathways important for substance abuse. Dopamine is a key player in drug reward activation in the brain, since dopamine receptors are activated by aversive events, salient external cues, and rewards. Dr. Steidl explains that all drugs of abuse share an ability to elevate nucleus accumbens levels of dopamine, forming addictive habits with its activation. There is also a characterizable sensitization of dopamine receptors, in which sensitization inducing pre-exposure enhances motivation to engage in drug self administration. 

    When discussing medications for the treatment of ADHD, one of the most important psychostimulants is methylphenidate, also referred to as Ritalin. In a study conducted in 2020 by Sidish Venkataraman et al., Ritalin was seen to function as a dopamine transporter blocker, binding to transporters responsible for reuptake of the neurotransmitter from the neuronal synapse, leaving more dopamine available to the postsynaptic neuron. These increases of dopamine levels were prominent in brain regions important for motivation and reward, namely the prefrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, ventral tegmental area, and nucleus accumbens. The study focused on the frontostriatal connections between the frontal cortex and caudate nucleus, since these connections have been implicated in drug seeking, addictive behavior and general drug use, especially with the upregulation of their functions through Ritalin. The data also explained how Ritalin was able to induce behavioral sensitization and tolerance based on the dosage of the drug, indicating that this psychostimulant has addictive potential.

    In both drugs of abuse and psychostimulants, we see the activation and elevation of dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens of the brain, as well as prominence of sensitization. These neurological underpinnings are indicative of addictive substances and can lead to dependence in the future. With Dr. Steidl’s explanation of the importance that dopamine plays in the nucleus accumbens and the activation of the region with Ritalin administration in Venkataraman’s study, it makes sense why many parents are skeptical and hesitant to have their child ingest a drug that has a high abuse potential.

Signs of Treatment or Early Stages of Addiction?

    Given this data, it would be safe to assume that due to Ritalin’s high abuse potential, it is unsafe to prescribe to children struggling with ADHD, however, this deduction is inaccurate. Although the data from the study performed by Venkataraman et al. indicates that there are many points of interest in the addictive properties of Ritalin due to drug seeking behaviors and sensitization, (predictable of drugs of abuse through Dr. Steidl’s work) the researchers make it clear that the addictive potential would only be manifested in individuals abusing the drug. In other words, the use of Ritalin by healthy individuals gives rise to copious amounts of the neurotransmitter in the brain, initiating pathways for addiction and drug seeking behaviors. On the other hand, with individuals that are diagnosed with ADHD and truly have this characteristic dopamine deficiency, taking a psychostimulant such as Ritalin can bring dopamine up to normal levels, alleviating some of the negative symptoms brought on by the disorder. Ultimately, there are little to no addictive properties manifested in taking Ritalin as prescribed for the goal of treating ADHD. 

Should Parents Continue to Worry?

    With the research conducted by Steidl et al. and Venkataraman et al., it is clear that Ritalin has a high abuse potential only when not taken for its sole purpose of ADHD treatment. Based on this research and other thoroughly conducted studies examining the beneficial impacts that a psychostimulant, such as Ritalin, has on child attention and cognitive development, parents should not have to worry about the possible risk of future substance abuse. There are many factors that may lead a child to grow up to be dependent on drugs, such as environmental stressors or genes; medication that is being prescribed to help a child with a neurodevelopmental disorder may play an insignificant role in this future risk when considering more prominent influencing factors. Parents should take a step back, assess the stigmas around the use of psychostimulants, educate themselves about Ritalin and its neural actions, and then formulate their thoughts and decisions on the course of treatment for their child.

Works Cited

Nevid, J. S., Rathus, S. A., Greene, B. (2018). Abnormal psychology in a changing world. Pearson, 10, 138.

Steidl, S., Wasserman, D. I., Blaha, C. D., Yeomans, J. S. (2017). Opioid-induced rewards, locomotion, and dopamine activation: A proposed model for control by mesopontine and rostromedial tegmental neurons. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 83, 72-82. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.09.022

Venkataraman, S. S., Claussen, C. M., Kharas, N., Dafny, N. (2020). The prefrontal cortex and the caudate nucleus repons conjointly to methylphenidate (Ritalin). Concomitant behavioral and neuronal recording study. Brain Research Bulletin, 157, 77-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.10.009

 Wolpert, S. (2022). Are children who take Ritalin for ADHD at greater risk of future drug abuse? UCLA Newsroom. https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/are-children-who-take-ritalin-246186