Gesture Utilization Across Species Lines

Gesture is a common utilization in speech, to describe and elaborate on what is being said verbally. It may even come so naturally to us that we don’t realize the extent of the impact it has on our communication. In children, gestures are subconsciously used to enhance memory and learning in the long term. It is believed that the mental mechanisms of learning, speech, and gesture are all related to each other in intricate and important ways.

For the research article “Language Proficiency Impacts the Benefits of Co-Speech Gesture for Narrative Understanding Through a Visual Attention Mechanism” by Natalia Zielinski and Elizabeth Wakefield, a study was completed that tested how much the addition of gesture benefitted a listener, based on age and language proficiency. The subjects, 17 bilingual children between the ages of six and eight, were read a story in one of two languages -- English or Polish -- which was accompanied by no gesture, matched gesture, or mismatched gesture. Matched gesture is redundant with speech, essentially repeating what was said, but in gesture. Mismatched gesture is gesture that provides additional information to what was said, rather than information found in the speech. The children were then asked to reproduce the story points, which produced quantifiable recall scores. The results of the study show that all of the children, who were reported as being more proficient in English, remembered the most English story points without gesture, and the most Polish story points were remembered when in conjunction with matched gesture. In the language with lower proficiency, the kids used the gesture to help determine the meaning of what was being said. This shows that gesture deeply benefits language learning.

In a New York Times article recently released called “The Animals Are Talking. What Does It Mean?” by Sonia Shah, a very similar idea is addressed. An important part of the article addresses Cat Hobaiter, a scientist who works with great apes, some of our closest living relatives, and studies the gestures of her subjects. In the gestures recorded between the great apes she studies, a decently high amount are actually legible to us humans. Hobaiter has used her study techniques on pre-verbal children, toddlers of one or two years of age, and found 40-50 matching gestures that indicated the same, or very similar meanings between species. She also put videos of ape gestures online for adult humans to try to decode or define, and the correct responses from people was found at a rate “significantly higher than expected by chance”, as Hobaiter and her fellows reported in a paper for PLOS Biology.

Though these articles address different species, and different reasons for gesture, they match in the idea that gesture is subconscious, and has legitimate meaning in use. Whether gesture is the main source of communication, or just an additional resource, research from around the world is concluding that gesture plays an important role in communication.




Sources

Shah, Sonia. “The Animals Are Talking. What Does It Mean?” The New York Times, The New York Times, 20 Sept. 2023, www.nytimes.com/2023/09/20/magazine/animal-communication.html.




Zielinski, N., & Wakefield, E. M. (2021). Language Proficiency Impacts the Benefits of Co-Speech Gesture for Narrative Understanding Through a Visual Attention Mechanism. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 43(43). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/63r5d3qq

Katie Jabaay's Post: The Power of Scent

Katie Jabaay's Post

 Power of Scent

    Scent is a powerful tool to creatures on this Earth. Odors alert organisms to threats, food, mates, and other important aspects to life while also being retained and influential to the storage of memories. Scent in humans has all of those traits and more, as we can explicitly  label scents and have deep associations with both good and bad memories, especially in those with mental illnesses. Two articles touch on olfaction’s effect on humans are “What the nose knows” and “Something doesn’t smell right” respectively written by Colleen Walsh and Peter Reuele of Harvard University. 

    The article “What the nose knows” gives the succinct explanation of the connection between scent and emotion. Taking the more literary route, the article describes the initiation of a memory via a specific smell as a Proustian moment. The article goes on to explain that the connection between the olfactory bulb, the amygdala and the hippocampus heavily contribute to the connection smell has to one’s emotion and memory. Smell is so immersive and crucial to one’s experience that it forms one's sense of taste, creates a signature brand for companies, becomes associated with colors, and creates a foundation of childhood memories that will create likes and dislikes for ages. The monopolization of scent was a focal point of the article, as it is a relatively new phenomenon to use scents on normally non-scented products in order to appeal to a specific audience or outcompete others. Creating scented products for a clothing line, making film that pairs with scented air, and fragrant hotels are new markets that are on the rise and being researched and pushed by scientists such as Dawn Goldworm, Venkatesh Murthy, and David Edwards. 

    While the previous article focuses on the positive sides of smell, the second article, “Something doesn’t smell right,” explains the recent finding of a specific olfactory sensor that is specific for rancid odors. Trace amine-associated receptors, or TAARs, are specific receptors in the olfactory bulb that are entirely distinct from the average, and more populous, odorant receptors. TAARs are specifically activated during the sensation of cadaverine and putrescine scents, meaning they are specifically geared towards smells of rotting and death. These receptors, for most animals, send the message that something is wrong, making those smells bad. The fact that creatures are born with these receptors provides evidence for the idea that animals, and even humans, have scents that are innately labeled as bad; this means that smell preferences are in fact partially influenced by genetics rather than only socialization and associations. 

     Connecting to these ideals is the article "Odor modulates the temporal dynamics of fear memory consolidation" by Grella et al., where the effects of odor on the encoding and storage of memory is explored. The study focused on three theories, being the systems consolidation, competitive trace and multiple trace theory. Systems consolidation theory states that with time memories become less detailed with time and consequently change from being stored in the hippocampus to the prefrontal cortex. Multiple trace theory states that the episodic and semantic memories, as in memories with high levels of detail, are stored in the hippocampus, whereas less detailed memories are stored in the prefrontal cortex. Competitive trace elaborates these ideas and states that though memories become more remote with time, they can also be re-contextualized. Mice with PTSD had problems with the fear conditioned memories since they were stored in the hippocampus and were readily available instead of being stored remotely in the prefrontal cortex. The connection to the previous articles lies in the fact that the genetically modified mice were fear conditioned, pairing specific scents and electric shocks. The mice learned to associate the scents with the shock, causing a fear response from the mere odor, and the fear-memory was readily available in the hippocampus. 

    The reason that the “What the nose knows” and “Something doesn’t smell right” connect to the paper by Grella et al. is that there are many possible implications of the work. If Walsh’s predictions are true and scent can really be utilized for intentional and successful marketing, then this can be taken to the extreme with the knowledge that some scents are innately good or bad. Finding a receptor for an inherently good scent could maximize the marketing of anything from clothing to vacations, and perhaps a more likely first step could be using it in pet treats or toys since it can be easier to determine animals’ innately good or bad receptors. In a similar fashion, there could be the possibility for those with PTSD and other mental illnesses with symptoms triggered by scents be trained with new, innately pleasant scents during therapy. Since there is the possibility for naturally pleasant and enticing odors and there’s the knowledge that PTSD memories are held as new and adaptable in the brain, associating a new and pleasant emotion with a traumatic memory could potentially ease the negative response with the natural positive one. However, steps would need to be taken to regulate the amount of positive odors that are used in order to not associate more scents with a traumatic memory or response. More broadly, positive scents could be used during therapy to facilitate the eliciting positive emotions and negating the negative ones during emotionally taxing conversations. Overall, odors are an overlooked aspect to daily life, marketing, research, and therapeutic treatments for how influential it is to human and animal neurology. More research into this topic could yield a flourishing new market and possible improvement for the treatment of those with mental illnesses. 

Bibliography

Grella, Stephanie L., et al. “Odor Modulates the Temporal Dynamics of Fear Memory Consolidation.” Learning and Memory, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1101/2019.12.19.881615.

Reuell, Peter. “Something Doesn't Smell Right.” Harvard Gazette, Harvard Gazette, 15 Jan. 2014, https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2014/01/something-doesnt-smell-right/.

Walsh, Colleen. “How Scent, Emotion, and Memory Are Intertwined - and Exploited.” Harvard Gazette,  Harvard Gazette, 27 Feb. 2020, https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/02/how-                           scent-emotion-and-memory-are-intertwined-and-exploited/. 

REM Sleep in Other Species: The Key to Understanding Dreams

REM Sleep in Other Species: The Key to Understanding Dreams

        On October 5th, 2021, Dr. Karen Konkoly presented her recently-published study on “Real-time dialogue between experimenters and dreamers during REM sleep” (Konkoly et al., 2021). Konkoly explained that the goal of the study was to learn whether the possibility of real-time communication by dreamers could be achieved without “fragmentary and distorted” reports (Konkoly et al., 2021). Konkoly mentioned that dreamers often cannot accurately remember or describe dreams well once awake. In the study, dreamers were given easy mathematical or yes-no questions for “...proof of concept demonstration...” and then given more challenging questions in which answers were recorded through eye or facial movements (Konkoly et al., 2021). This experiment introduced “electrophysiological signals” to communicate dreams in real-time, a phenomenon that once wasn’t believed to be possible until studies like this one (Konkoly et al., 2021).
        Four subjects from varying countries were gathered in Konkoly’s lab to participate in this successful experiment. She explained the unique sleeping shifts of the participants and the researchers, stressing the importance of researchers being able to stay awake for the entirety of the participant’s long sleeping session. Sleep sessions would generally begin early in the morning when a REM cycle was more likely to occur. The dreaming subjects represented a diverse group of sleepers. One of the subjects had been previously diagnosed with narcolepsy and another reported having only had two lucid dreams in their whole life (Konkoly et al., 2021). It’s interesting to consider the possibility of completely different results that the study may have produced had the participants reported never experiencing lucid dreams or reported experiencing lucid dreams frequently. Is it possible that the hearing abilities of the participants also factored into their lucid dreaming experiences? Could an experiment with children compared to one with senior citizens produce entirely different results considering that senior citizens tend to have more difficulty hearing?
        Konkoly reported that there were a total of four research groups that each utilized slightly different protocols (Konkoly et al., 2021). Since the study was rather complicated, is it possible that having multiple research groups could have caused potential discrepancies in the results? Regardless, the purpose of the study was to better understand if dreamers could experience lucid dreaming and communicate their dreams in real-time - and this was achieved. Any discrepancy in the data would likely not affect the current study, but possibly more in-depth studies later down the line. Konkoly also reported that dreamers later explained that signals were received “...as if coming from outside the dream or superimposed over the dream” (Konkoly et al., 2021). Since the interpretation of signals will differ for all subjects and hinge on their hearing ability and past psychological conditioning, the volume of a researcher’s voice might affect the way a signal is interpreted. A participant with good hearing may be better equipped to interpret the researcher’s voice and thus respond with more accurate non-verbal responses. Konkoly’s research reveals that REM sleep is not only a common occurrence that opens many doors for learning more about the purpose of dreams and brain functions but can be explored further to allow lucid dreaming and real-time communication with dreamers. But can this be studied in all species? Is REM sleep a necessity for other animals? Can lucid dreaming and real-time communication be achieved with other species if they have a general understanding of animal-to-human communication?
        In the Nature Editorial “Fur seals can go weeks without REM sleep”, writer Alex Fox describes that northern fur seals “can forgo rapid eye movement sleep for up to two weeks while at sea with no visible hardship” (Fox, 2018). It is well known that REM sleep is the “brain’s most active sleep phase” and is “associated with learning and processing memories” (Fox, 2018). However, new research suggests that REM sleep also plays a major role in “regulating brain temperature” according to “Current Biology” (Fox, 2018). It was reported that northern fur seals generally experience “little to no REM sleep” when in water but didn’t seem to be “deprived” of it at all (Fox, 2018).
        Research has shown that “the brain is warmer” during REM sleep or “when an animal is awake”, pointing to the theory that the “REM phase kicks in to keep the seals' brain from getting too cold” when sleeping in the water since half of a seal’s brain is awake and warm when in water (Fox, 2018). Since fur seals do not experience this on land, they have intermittent cycles of non-REM and REM sleep consistently. This theory is still being debated, as it’s possible that “the loss of REM sleep could have negative effects that aren’t easily noticed” in this species” and/or “tasks performed during REM sleep could be taken care of during non-REM phases” (Fox, 2018). This study is unique in that it focuses on fur seals specifically and gives an in-depth hypothesis for why fur seals may not need REM sleep the same way humans do.

         Konkoly’s mission was to establish real-time communication with humans during dreams to better understand what dreams humans have and possibly why they have them. Could the REM cycle habits of fur seals help unlock the secrets behind REM sleep and the functions involved in REM cycles? Could REM sleep truly be tied to brain temperature? Is it connected to brain temperature regulation in humans, too? How do REM sleep needs and capability differ across species and could Konkoly’s lab repeat similar studies to understand dreams during REM sleep for animals other than humans? REM sleep experiments testing the habits of numerous species could be the key to understanding why animals dream - a question that has plagued many researchers since Sigmund Freud’s initial theory about dreams as repressed desires.

References 

Fox, A. (2018, June 7). Fur seals can go weeks without REM sleep. Nature Editorial. Retrieved October 22, 2021, from https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05353-0?error=cookies_not_supported&code=500850cf-de3c-4d0f-8b94-bad2ab41458f

Konkoly, K., Appel, K., Chabani, E., Mironov, A. Y., Mangiaruga, A., Gott, J., Mallett, R., Caughran, B., Witkowski, S., Whitmore, N., Berent, J., Weber, F., Pipa, G., Türker, B., Maranci, J. B., Sinin, A., Dorokhov, V., Arnulf, I., Oudiette, D., Paller, K. (2021, April 12). Real-time dialogue between experimenters and dreamers during REM sleep. ScienceDirect. Retrieved October 22, 2021, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982221000592?via%3Dihub

Your Nose May Be the Key to Your Past

The nose is a sensory organ that is necessary for one of the most, if not the most important senses in human beings and other animals. Without the sense of smell, our world and how we perceive it would be a whole lot different. Smell, also known as olfaction, is crucial for determining not only the food that we eat but also detecting if there is danger nearby, such as a fire. Smell is the only sense that is fully developed in a human fetus before birth. After being born, a child mainly detects and retains many smells they are exposed to and when the child grows up and is exposed to a familiar odor, detailed memories connected to that odor come flooding back. This familiar experience, which is no stranger to many people, is called the Proust effect, and has pushed researchers to delve deeper and to better understand the relationship between smell and memory.

Many researchers are trying to better understand the neuroscience behind how smell can impact memory, and one of those researchers is Laura K. Shanahan. In Shanahan’s lab, she and her colleagues focus on the influence of olfaction on memory consolidation in the brain of a sleeping human. As described in Shanahan’s paper, “Scents and Reminiscence: Olfactory influences on Memory Consolidation in the Sleeping Human Brain”, to better understand the relationship between odor and memory, Shanahan’s lab performs an experiment. Initially, participants are presented with an encoding task, such as matching a specific card with an odor to a location. After the completion of the encoding task the participants are told to go to sleep. The sleep is monitored in an MRI machine and when participants are observed to be in slow-wave sleep, the researchers present the participants with the odors that were involved in the encoding task. Upon waking up, participants were asked tested on the task they had done before sleeping which required them to memorize the card and location to the best of their ability. The results from this experiment showed that the subjects performed a lot better in the memory post-test when they were exposed to the odor stimuli during slow-wave sleep when compared to the results of the memory post-test of subjects who were not exposed to the odor stimuli during slow-wave sleep. The researchers also tried introducing the odor stimuli during other stages of sleep to determine if it had the same result, but they concluded that the memory-enhancing effect only occurred when the stimuli was introduced in slow-wave sleep. Shanahan’s findings have suggested that odors can greatly influence memory consolidation and that the results that came from experiment with sleeping human brain show how strong of a relationship olfaction has with the hippocampus.

In an article titled, “Why smells bring back such vivid memories”, Ana Sandoiu writes about the phenomenon that occurs when a familiar odor is detected and how research regarding the relationship between olfaction and memory can help better understand Alzheimer’s disease. In the article, Sandoiu begins by talking about a famous French author by the name of Marcel Proust who wrote pages of memories that was triggered by the smell of Madeleines. The writings of Proust help describe how odors can be connected to very detailed long-term memories. The Proust effect, which is described as the recall of episodic memories after an odor stimuli has been greatly studied and researchers have hypothesized the cause of this phenomenon to be due to the location of the olfactory system being very close the brain. The author highlights new findings that show “spatiotemporal information is integrated in a brain region known as the anterior olfactory nucleus (AON), which is implicated in Alzheimer’s disease” (Sandoiu). A researcher by the name of Afif Aqrabawi conducted a study in which mice were subjected to a range of experiments and tests to examine the role of the anterior olfactory nucleus on memory. In the article it states that Aqrabawi’ s study led to the discovery of neural pathways between the hippocampus and the anterior olfactory nucleus. In the experiments, mice were presented with odors and Aqrabawi says that when the neural connection between the hippocampus and AON is intact, the mice preferred spending time smelling a new odor instead of a familiar one. With the neural pathway disrupted, mice preferred to smell the familiar odor as they thought it was a new odor. Aqrabawi explains how this observation helps to better understand the neural circuits that are responsible for episodic memory triggered by smell. The article also talks about how Alzheimer’s disease has shown early degradation of the anterior olfactory neuron and that the odor deficits that are experienced by people who suffer Alzheimer’s have difficulty remembering details about the odors they encountered. The neural pathway that was discovered in Aqrabawi’ s study may be a clue to better understand what the underlying causes of this are.

The research being done by Shanahan, and the study done by Aqrabawi that was described in Sandoiu’ s article, shows the deep connection of the olfactory system and memory. The experiments done in Shanahan’s lab show how even during sleep olfaction can be used as a tool to shape memory consolidation. The olfactory pathway is connected to the limbic system, which is involved in memory and emotion and during sleep, odorants can be presented to individuals without them being aware and awake. Even without participants being actively awake, it reinforces the encoding of memories. The discovery of new connections in Aqrabawi’ s study greatly helps get closer to explaining why odors are so involved with memory. Further research in the relationship between odor and memory can possibly reveal methods that can be used in learning. This research can possibly be used to answer questions regarding if odor can be used to help better encode information in a shorter span of time. How can olfaction help in neurodegenerative disease and maybe in cases of amnesia? While there are many studies focused on the relationship between smell and memory, there is a lot yet to be uncovered.

__________________________________________________________________

Sandoiu, Ana. “Why Smells Bring Back Such Vivid Memories.” Medical News Today, MediLexicon International, 26 July 2018, www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/322579.

Shanahan, Laura K., and Jay A. Gottfried. “Scents and Reminiscence: Olfactory Influences on Memory Consolidation in the Sleeping Human Brain.” Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory Consolidation, 2017, pp. 335–346., doi:10.1007/978-3-319-45066-7_20.