The world around us: Electrical Stimulation on Proprioception

     Proprioception often referred to as the “sixth sense” is the body’s ability to perceive information about its position and movement in space, this is related to the central nervous system. Proprioception allows one to perform daily tasks associated with balance and coordination without depending on visual input or consciously thinking about each movement. However, the process of proprioception can be adversely affected by injuries and medical conditions (Hryvniak, Wilder, Jenkins, Statuta, 2021). 

    In the article, Effects of Noise Electrical Stimulation on Proprioception, Force Control, and Corticomuscular Functional Connectivity, Dr. Vincent Chen and colleagues studied the effects of noise electrical stimulation on proprioceptive senses as well as grip force control and how this correlate to neural activities in the central nervous system. The study found that noise stimulation with the appropriate intensity had an improvement on force and joint proprioceptive senses. Participants exposed to higher intensity electrical noise stimulation for a 30-minute period showed improvement in force proprioceptive perception. These results showed a potential clinical benefit for people with impaired proprioceptive senses. 

    In the ScienceDirect journal, Improved proprioceptive function by application of subsensory electrical noise: Effects of aging and task-demand, Diana R. Toledo and colleagues discussed the benefits of subsensory electrical noise stimulation on proprioception in young and older adults. The study found that people exposed to electrical noise stimulation showed improvements in proprioception function, electrical noise stimulation applied to the legs led to faster response times for detecting ankle movements. Studies also revealed that electrical noise stimulation showed a reduction in the postural sway, providing better postural control only during more challenging tasks, specifically when the visual information was removed. The study found that electrical noise stimulation enhances proprioceptive and postural control especially during more demanding tasks. The improvements were not significantly influenced by the age of the participants but rather by the difficulty of the task which plays a more critical role in the effectiveness of the stimulation. 

    Both studies demonstrate the positive effects of noise electrical stimulation on proprioception. Dr. Vincent Chen study showed that electrical noise stimulation at the appropriate intensity could be beneficial for the improvement of force and joint proprioceptive senses and mentions how noise stimulation could provide clinical benefits. While in the study by Diana R. Toledo, the results showed that electrical noise stimulation provided positive impacts in proprioceptive function and reduction of postural sway in both young and older adults. Both results show that electrical noise stimulation could potentially be clinically beneficial for young and older adults suffering from impaired proprioceptive senses.

        Chou, Li-Wei, et al. “Effects of noise electrical stimulation on proprioception, force control, and corticomuscular functional connectivity.” IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, vol. 31, 2023, pp. 2518–2524, https://doi.org/10.1109/tnsre.2023.3277752.

    Hryvniak, D., Wilder, R. P., Jenkins, J., & Statuta, S. M. (2021). Therapeutic exercise. Braddom’s Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323- 62539-5.00015-1 

    Toledo, Diana R., et al. “Improved proprioceptive function by application of subsensory electrical noise: Effects of aging and task-demand.” Neuroscience, vol. 358, 1 Sept. 2017, pp. 103–114, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuros

The Emergence of Consciousness During Early Prefrontal Cortex Development

     As we may be the most sentient beings within this planet, one may wonder how this came to be. The science behind conscience development is still very much so a mystery as infants aren't able to give verbal feedback on what they may be thinking or feeling. At which point did we begin to form consciousness and perceive? The definition of consciousness may vary slightly depending on who you ask, with some people believing we are conscious before birth, during, and way after birth into early adolescence. Either way, it is this specific component of the human experience that sets us apart from our common pets, insects and house plants, enabling us to find the best possible ways to survive and become the top of the food chain as we developed the world as we know it today.

     One specific research article titled "Does Consciousness Begin Before Birth" described by Fiona Tyrell based on the original study "Consciousness in the cradle: on the emergence of infant experience" by Tim Bayne conducted by an international research team from Trinity College Dublin (published October 12, 2023) gives insight on the notion that consciousness does indeed emerge before birth, during the late stage of pregnancy and even immediately after birth. It presents findings of infant consciousness as measured through brain imaging, newborn sensory integration processes as well as the perceptual capabilities of infants, as compared to adults. According to this article as found on Neuroscience News, it is apparent that "by birth the infant’s developing brain is capable of conscious experiences that can make a lasting imprint on their developing sense of self and understanding of their environment" (Tyrell 2). This entails the encoding of sensory details such as sounds from varied languages, including the sound of their mother's voice, which is due to perceptual capacity being stronger for infants than in adults. This was discovered by using one way and two way consciousness markers through brain imaging in adults which were then applied to assess infant consciousness to view thalamocortical connectivity. As it turns out, though infants aren't as adept at visual processing compared to adults they still have the capability to distinguish visual stimuli and can also discriminate facial expressions of happiness to disgust. This is fascinating because quite often, as older persons we don't always tend to understand when children begin to form their own thoughts, ideas and experiences and we may overlook this process, writing it off as less significant than the integration processes of adults who already lead their own lives since children have less developed minds. I feel that it is important to note that each initial process has a very profound effect on children as they grow because they nurture the type of person the child will become in the future. 

    This can also possibly directly correlate to the findings of a study titled "Relations Between Frontal EEG Maturation and Inhibitory Control in the Prediction of Children’s Early Academic Skills" by Margaret Whedon, Nicole B. Perry and Martha Ann Bell which expresses findings that the rate of prefrontal cortex maturation is important for the expression of inhibitory control (IC) within children. According to the study, children with higher signals of alpha waves which are emitted while the brain is idly awake in the prefrontal cortex may positively correlate with a higher rate of frontal lobe maturation, allowing for better performance during academic tasks including math and reading. This was measured using EEG technology as children were Woodcock-Johnson tests to complete. At age 4, the childrens' inhibitory control abilities were assessed in this way and then again at age 6 to find the correlation between higher alpha wave frequencies and prefrontal maturation, which was positive. Given the findings of both research articles, it makes sense to conclude that infants who were able to successfully integrate many different types of stimuli and conscious experiences could exhibit more development within their frontal lobe connectivity that supports the process of demonstrating inhibitory control.

References

      Tyrell, Fiona, "Does Consciousness Begin Before Birth?" Neuroscience News, Oct. 2023, https://neurosciencenews.com/consciousness-pregnancy-neurodevelopment-24943/

      Bayne, Tim, “Consciousness in the cradle: on the emergence of infant experience” Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Volume 27, Issue 12, 1135 - 1149, Oct. 2023, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2023.08.018 

    Whedon, Margaret, et al. “Relations between Frontal EEG Maturation and Inhibitory Control in Preschool in the Prediction of Children’s Early Academic Skills.” Brain and Cognition, volume 146, no. 105636, Dec. 2020, p. 105636, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105636.

Intersections of Memory: Visual and Auditory Influences on Cognitive Performance

Memory performance is a multidimensional occurrence that significantly varies between sensory modalities, mainly in the realms of visual and auditory processing. Understanding the differences can be important for various fields, including cognitive psychology, education, and human-computer interaction, because of how they influence how we encode, store, and retrieve information.

 

In the perceptive article "Constant Curvature Segments as Building Blocks of 2D Shape Representation," Nicholas Baker et al. investigate the mechanisms that underlie visual memory. The authors propose that the human visual system utilizes constant curvature segments as fundamental building blocks for representing complex two-dimensional shapes. As described in the lecture, through a series of experiments, they demonstrate that individuals exhibit enhanced memory performance when shapes are decomposed into these curvature segments, facilitating easier recognition and recall. The results from this research emphasize the significance of visual organization and structure in memory tasks, suggesting that the brain’s ability to categorize and simplify visual information plays a crucial role in memory retention.

 

Similarly, in the article "Auditory and Visual Short‐Term Memory: Influence of Material Type, Contour, and Musical Expertise," Francesca Talamini et al. explore auditory memory performance and its relationship with musical training. Based off the article, their findings show that musicians—who have specialized training in auditory perception—demonstrate superior memory for melodic contours compared to their non-musician counterparts. The authors argue that this advantage may stem from musicians' enhanced ability to encode and maintain auditory information, suggesting that musical expertise contributes to the development of more robust memory traces. Furthermore, Talamini et al. highlight the importance of contour information in auditory tasks, indicating that individuals with musical training are more adept at discerning subtle variations in sound patterns, thereby improving their overall memory performance.

 

The association that can be drawn between these two articles lies in their similar focus to how structural elements—whether visual segments or auditory contours—enhance memory performance. Baker et al. illustrate how breaking down visual shapes into simpler curvature segments facilitates better recall, emphasizing the brain's organization of visual stimuli in memory encoding. Concurrently, Talamini et al. emphasize the significance of contour in auditory stimuli, showing how musicians' training enables them to better perceive and remember melodic structures. Both of the studies suggest that an inherent structure, whether it is in the form of visual segments or auditory contours, improves cognitive processing and memory retention.

 

The relationship is particularly relevant as can imply a broader principle about memory across different sensory modalities. From these articles, we can understand that memory performance can be enhanced through the structural organization of stimuli—weather it is visual or auditory—researchers can explore integrated approaches to learning that leverage these insights.

References

Baker, N., Garrigan, P., & Kellman, P. J. (2021). Constant curvature segments as building blocks of 2D shape representation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 150(8), 1556–1580. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001007 

Talamini, F., Blain, S., Ginzburg, J., Houix, O., Bouchet, P., Grassi, M., Tillmann, B., & Caclin, A. (2022). Auditory and visual short-term memory: Influence of material type, contour, and musical expertise. Psychological Research, 86(2), 421–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-021-01519-0

Inhibitory Control as a Evaluative Measure in Studies of Academic Performance and Bilingualism

There is a lot of literature in psychology that is focused on key stages of development. Part of it is to understand the basics of child development and how we learn in general, and the other portion is to eventually develop programs and interventions to make sure children develop to their full potential and aren’t left behind from the very beginning in this marathon we call life. An expert researcher who has made many findings in this field is Dr. Martha Ann Bell. Dr. Bell came to Loyola Chicago to present in our class earlier this semester on her paper, “Relations between frontal EEG maturation and inhibitory control in preschool in the prediction of children's early academic skills.” 

Dr. Bell was a wonderful presenter, and you could tell she really was passionate about the research she was doing. She went through her findings and showed how inhibitory control(IC) was a possible mediator variable in academic performance between the ages of 10 months to 6 years old. Inhibitory control is the ability to inhibit your natural desires/inclinations in order to complete another task, which is crucial for young children in order to sit still and pay attention to their teachers teaching them new information. Dr. Bell wondered if how well the young children could exhibit IC at younger ages would determine their academic performance in later years. One of the limitations of the scope of her research that Dr. Bell clearly stated in her presentation, was that originally very specific demographic data was not taken as well as there are many other factors that can affect a child’s development besides the time they are being evaluated in preschool and kindergarten for her studies. One of the possibilities many reasons for the results of Dr. Bell’s research comes from a study I saw while I was at the Society for Neuroscience annual conference here in Chicago this past week. 

On the last day I met a women named Sally Sade who was researching bilingualism’s effect on young children’s development and cognitive abilities. Sade’s research was in the preliminary phases but the research had IC as one of the evaluative measures of a child’s executive functioning abilities. Sade’s research is still ongoing, but as of now her results have shown that although bilingual kids perform the same overall, their brains are more efficient at switching between tasks. So this study made me think of Dr. Bell’s study and if one of the reasons a kid may have higher IC could possibly be because they are bilingual and have to stop the process of another language occurring in their brain in order to use the other language, especially if they are from the same language family(Spanish and French both being Latin languages for example). I believe in the future these studies could tie into one another and maybe it will lead to more of a push and support for bilingualism in the United States from a young age, which is very common in many countries around the world besides the United States.

References

Sally Sade, Scott Rathwell, Bryan Kolb, Claudia Gonzalez, Robbin Gibb

bioRxiv 2024.10.04.616691; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.10.04.616691 

Whedon, M., Perry, N. B., & Bell, M. A. (2020). Relations between frontal EEG maturation and inhibitory control in preschool in the prediction of Children’s early academic skills. Brain and Cognition, 146, 105636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105636

Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation: A Path to Improved Motor Function and Proprioception in Neurological Disorders

There are many people who are suffering from neurological impairments, and neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) has been gaining traction as an effective means for improving proprioception and motor function in these people. Dr. Vincent Chen, in his research article, "Effects of Noise Electrical Stimulation on Proprioception, Force Control, and Corticomuscular Functional Connectivity," investigated the impact of stochastic resonance electrical stimulation on various factors, such as joint proprioception and functional connectivity between the cortex and muscles. Likewise, researcher Courtney L. Ellerbusch, in her research article, “A case series in individuals with multiple sclerosis using direct current electrical stimulation to inhibit spasticity and improve functional outcomes,” investigated the effects of direct current electrical stimulation (DC) on spasticity and functional mobility in individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS). Dr. Chen’s research uncovered how noise electrical stimulation, along with corticomuscular coherence, enhances proprioceptive abilities and improves grip force regulation. By applying noise electrical stimulation at optimal intensities, there was significant improvement in force control and joint proprioception in the participants. Similarly, Ellerbusch and her colleagues employed a multimodal approach - combining DC with neuromuscular reeducation, flexibility, and functional training - over 18 visits to examine the impact on spasticity in people with MS. She provided greater insight into the role of mechanoreceptors and electrical stimulation in helping patients better manage spasticity and improving functional outcomes in a clinical setting. While Dr. Vincent Chen’s research highlights the corticomuscular connectivity in healthy people, Ellerbusch’s case series can advocate for the effectiveness of electrical stimulation in restoring neural pathways in patients with MS. Dr. Chen and Dr. Ellerbusch underscored the important role neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) has in enhancing neural connectivity in both of their studies. Specifically, in Dr. Chen’s research, the applied noise-based stimulation led to greater synchronization between the muscle groups and motor cortex, which resulted in better-controlled movements. This very principle was confirmed in Dr. Ellerbusch’s MS case series, as the patients who experienced lowered spasticity also reported improvements in their strength, ability to walk, and balance. Specifically, the elimination of clonus - involuntary and rhythmic muscle contractions - occurred in some of the subjects during and temporarily after treatment. These two studies indicate that not only is there improvement of motor function in healthy individuals interacting with NMES, but also that research is starting to reveal this can be used as a therapeutic intervention for persons with neurological disorders as well. While Ellerbusch prefaces that her research was a small pilot study case series where conclusions should be made cautiously, her research at least provides a promising path for NMES being integrated into wider rehabilitation procedures. As Dr. Vincent Chen’s study mostly addressed immediate changes in motor control and proprioception, his research has shown the potential to go further in seeing if NMES can have lasting changes in neural plasticity. In the near future, searching how these different types of electrical stimulation can affect the brain's capability to create new neural pathways over time would be very beneficial, especially as NMES offers a non-invasive solution for enhancing motor function. NMES has shown to eventually become an essential tool in rehabilitation settings, aiding people in regaining control over their movements, improving their quality of life, and providing greater hope for people living with these neurological conditions.

doi: 10.1177/20552173231186512

    I came across a very interesting post the other day over the internet. A concerned and loving parent reaching out and looking for answers from the community about their child. After a meeting with the child's daycare teacher, they informed the concerned parent of behavioral issues the child expresses during day care hours. They notified the parent that their child can’t sleep or rest during rest time and often prevents others from sleeping. Even though the child is the oldest in the classroom and he gives the most trouble. The parents were told that he is non-compliant and when told to do things he doesn't want to do, he'd throw temper tantrums and throw himself to the floor.  One time he was asked to stop playing with toys and out of frustration threw the toy he was playing with at another child, hurting the child, and showed no remorse. As you can see this parent has a right to be concerned. However we can't help but question why is the child acting this way and what does that mean for the future of this child? Now we can't predict the future but maybe  new scientific break throughs can help us pin point or or even help us get a better understanding on why things are the way they are. 

    I really appreciated the talk and the article "Relations between frontal EEG maturation and inhibitory control in preschool in the prediction of children’s early academic skills" by Martha Ann Bell, Nicole B Perry and Margert Whedon . The purpose of their study was to investigate developmental changes in resting-state EEG thought to reflect frontal cortical maturity, across the preschool years and looking to see if they were associated with children’s IC (Inhibition Control) at age 4 and subsequently academic skills at age 6. In their findings their evidence does in fact support that development of PFC (prefrontal cortex) in the earlier stages is associated with IC and academic successes. However one of their limitations was the ability to account for environment in the development of PFC.  Now I'm not indicating anything but maybe looking at the correlation between environment and PFC may help us deduce some of the factors that this child in the post I was telling you about is going through. 

I came across this article "Rapid Infant Prefrontal Cortex Development and Sensitivity to Early Environmental Experience" by Dev Rev (2018).  One of the aims of this journal/review was to provide a novel integration of research in three separate domains when looking at environment :maltreatment, poverty, and premature birth. This review sought to capture of perspective types of early adversity result in contrast neural and behaviors of the prefrontal cortex development. The review claims that impacts of early adverse environments on prefrontal cortex are present very early in development: within the first year of life and were able to correlate that children’s ability to regulate behavior and emotions in a goal-directed fashion, referred to as executive function (EF). The article suggests that EF relys on the development of prefrontal cortex.  In order for EF to be at its highest is important for proper development of the PF which is responsible for decision-making and cognitive control is presumed to underlie the vulnerability of adolescents to making risky choices.

 

Inhibitory Control and Accessibility in Education

            Inhibitory control (IC) is a process in which we can regulate and prevent ourselves from performing unwanted behaviors. It develops in our first few years of life as the prefrontal cortex of the brain develops. Dr. Bell and collaborators’ longitudinal study in children from 10 months to 6 years old examined a relationship between IC, examined with the aid of electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings, and early academic skills. IC is thought to be an important developmental process for young children adapting to new social settings, such as schools, as they must learn to control and repress undesired behaviors. Dr. Bell’s lab focused only on children exhibiting typical development patterns, excluding participants with low birthweights, premature births, and early indicators of neurodivergence. This was done as a method to control confounding variables to the experiment and to standardize participant conditions. Research examining neurotypical individuals does not serve to exclude neurodivergent individuals, but instead to understand typical neural processes or development, so that further research can understand differing or atypical mechanisms of the nervous system. 

Dr. Bell’s research acknowledged that deficits in IC are characterized with Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD), as decreased EEG power values were observed compared to neurotypical children. Early characterizations of ADHD have considered a lack of inhibitory control to be a primary identifiable symptom, according to Senkowski, et al; Research conducted at Duquesne University led by Madison McKee also suggests that development of inhibition in the frontal cortex may be impaired in children with autism. Neurodivergence in children often results in a need for placement in special education programs to help make school systems more accessible. Further research on IC’s correlation to academic ability in both neurodivergent and neurotypical children could help demonstrate the degree in which traditional school systems are meeting children’s needs. 

School distress is a phenomenon studied by Dr. Sinéad Mullaly outlined in the 2023 study “School distress and the school attendance crisis: a story dominated by neurodivergence and unmet need.” School distress refers to a feeling in children and young people of heightened emotional turmoil related to school, often resulting in a lack of attendance. In the study, the researchers found that 92.1% of children experiencing school distress were neurodivergent, with 83.4% being autistic. While all people experiencing school distress had higher levels of anxiety, resulting in behaviors of avoidance, mental health conditions were mostly observed in neurodivergent children, with only 6.17% of neurotypical children having reported any. This suggests that school systems likely present additional struggles for neurodivergent children, who are then forced to take on additional emotional and mental burdens. 

Dr. Bell’s research found a positive relationship between IC and early academic performance, suggesting that traditional schooling may cater to neurotypical students who do not have impairments in IC seen in neurodivergent children. I believe that neurodivergent children who do not receive accessibility accommodations often have to take upon the added stress of conforming to school systems that are not created to benefit them and the way that they learn. 

A June 2024 article in The Wall Street Journal entitled “A Record Number of Kids Are in Special Education—and It’s Getting Harder to Help Them All” outlines the United States’ public school systems’ struggle with accommodating students with accessibility needs in the classroom. Especially since the COVID-19 pandemic, classroom learning has changed and modernized. Along with this, decreased stigma around diagnoses of neurodivergence has led to an increase in students in special education. In 2023, up to 15.3% of US public school students were eligible for individualized educational plans due to disability. However, traditional classrooms unable to catch up to the rapid developments in education often lack the resources and knowledge necessary to serve all kinds of students with all kinds of learning styles. I believe that neuroscience research and the work of developmental neuroscience can help explore the best methods for children to learn and how to provide accessible means to academic success for students who are considered atypical or neurodivergent, as it is important that all people have access to education. 

 

Resources:

Connolly SE, Constable HL and Mullally SL (2023) School distress and the school attendance crisis: a story dominated by neurodivergence and unmet need. Front. Psychiatry. 14:1237052. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1237052

McKee, M. (2023). Cognitive Neuropsychology of Autism, Attention- Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders and the Role that Neurodivergence Plays on Social Skills, Cognition and Behavior.. D.U.Quark, 8 (1). Retrieved from https://dsc.duq.edu/duquark/vol8/iss1/5

Senkowski, D., Ziegler, T., Singh, M. et al. Assessing Inhibitory Control Deficits in Adult ADHD: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Stop-signal Task. Neuropsychol Rev 34, 548–567 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-023-09592-5

Whedon, Margaret, et al. “Relations between Frontal EEG Maturation and Inhibitory Controlin Preschool in the Prediction of Children’s Early Academic Skills.” Brain and Cognition, vol. 14.  no. 105636, Dec. 2020, p. 105636,  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105636.

https://www.wsj.com/us-news/education/special-education-student-growth-teachers-understaffed-20efa9da