Why is understanding Breathing so Important?

    While many of us, if not all (I hope), are familiar with the importance of breathing, the true significance lies in understanding its mechanics. Imagine the potential if we could decipher the intricate relationship breathing has with our emotions or physical state. This knowledge could be harnessed to our advantage, particularly in high-stress situations where taking deeper, slower breaths could lead to better decisions. The mystery of breathing, while not new, remains a fascinating frontier waiting to be fully understood. 

    The research article " Facing the Challenge of Mammalian Neural Microcircuits: Taking a Few Breaths May Help" delves into the preBötC neuron circuits in the brainstem and their interaction with neuronal microcircuits. Dr. Jordan J. Skach and his colleagues have embarked on a journey to investigate the dynamic and molecular interaction of the preBötC neuron with the network. This is not just interesting, but also inspiring, as it paves the way for understanding the effectiveness of technology such as pacemakers and opens up new strategies to comprehend other microcircuits.

    Similar to the research article "The hypoxic respiratory response of the pre-Bötzinger complex," it explores the relationship between the preBötC biphasic response to acute hypoxia leading to the observation at a cellular level. By understanding this system with different oxygen levels, we can further understand the function of the preBötC neuron. Through this research, we can further understand hypoxic-related pathologies like sleep apnea based on the rhythmic controls within these neural mechanisms. 

    Suppose we can understand how the preBötC neuron interacts within a microcircuit. This will be the pathway to understanding other microcircuits and their interactions. If breathing deeper can make our body function efficiently under stress, allowing us to think better, then this is something we can remember next time we have an important test!

Reference

Feldman, J. L., & Kam, K. (2014). Facing the challenge of mammalian neural microcircuits: Taking a Few Breaths May Help. The Journal of Physiology, 593(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2014.277632

Khalilpour, J., Soltani Zangbar, H., Alipour, M. R., & Shahabi, P. (2024). The hypoxic respiratory response of the pre-Bötzinger complex. Heliyon, 10, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34491

Racial Representation, Cognitive Inhibition, and ADHD: Emotional Regulation in Adolescents

 Racial Representation, Cognitive Inhibition, and ADHD: Emotional Regulation in Adolescents

Cognitive and emotional regulation are important in understanding the challenges at hand of adolescence, where things such as frustrations and environmental factors can influence performance and behavior. These factors are especially important in understanding how early neuropsychological issues shape later outcomes in terms of academic achievement and behavioral health. 

 

In a study by Hudac et al. (2022), the authors explore how cognitive inhibition is affected by frustration in adolescent athletes. Using mobile EEG technology, the study focuses on how frustration impairs cognitive functioning in athletes, specifically in moments of stress or underperformance. They found that adolescents, particularly those experiencing frustration, showed significant difficulty with cognitive inhibition, a core component of executive function. The study discusses how emotional triggers, such as frustration, worsen deficits in cognitive abilities like inhibition, which are essential for regulating behavior and making decisions. Particularly, the study also introduces the influence of racial representation in sports, showing that underrepresented athletes may experience heightened emotional regulation problems because of the lack of diverse role models in their field. These findings suggest that frustration in sports settings not only impairs cognitive performance but may also have more pronounced effects for individuals who lack representation in their field.

            

The interaction that occurs between cognitive inhibition and emotional regulation is further explored in a study by Sjöwall et al. (2017), which investigates how early neuropsychological deficits predict ADHD symptoms and academic achievement in later adolescence. The research found that deficits in cognitive functions such as inhibition and emotional regulation in preschool children are strong predictors of ADHD symptoms and academic struggles during adolescence. These findings are especially significant when considering Hudac et al.’s (2022) results, which suggest that frustration exacerbates cognitive inhibition difficulties. For children with early neuropsychological deficits, these emotional and cognitive challenges are likely to build up over time, which contributes to the development of ADHD symptoms and academic underachievement, as shown by Sjöwall et al. (2017). The connection found between early inhibition deficits and long-term ADHD symptoms supports the idea from the authors that emotional regulation difficulties, whether being due to frustration, lack of representation, or other external factors, can significantly affect academic and behavioral outcomes.

 

Considering these points, the studies highlight the importance of addressing emotional regulation and cognitive inhibition early in life. Hudac et al. (2022) provide an insightful perspective on how frustration, specifically in underrepresented groups, can harm cognitive performance, while Sjöwall et al. (2017) show that early deficits in these same cognitive functions predict long-term academic and behavioral challenges. Both of the studies emphasize the significant role of emotional regulation in cognitive functioning, saying that interventions that are aimed at improving emotional control and supporting diverse representation could help moderate the development of ADHD symptoms and improve academic outcomes.

 

 

References

Hudac, C. M., Wallace, J. S., Ward, V. R., Friedman, N. R., Delfin, D., & Newman, S. D. (2022). Dynamic cognitive inhibition in the context of frustration: Increasing racial representation of adolescent athletes using mobile community-engaged EEG methods. Frontiers in Neurology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2022.918075

Sjöwall, D., Bohlin, G., Rydell, A.-M., & Thorell, L. B. (2017). Neuropsychological deficits in preschool as predictors of ADHD symptoms and academic achievement in late adolescence. Child Neuropsychology, 23(1), 111–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2015.1063595

Polarization in Social Media

 The research article “Social groups and polarization of aesthetic values from symmetry and complexity” implements statistical analysis to determine whether people fall into groups based on the aesthetic values of symmetry and complexity. The researchers found that polarization occurred, in which participants fell into islands of aesthetic preference. This pattern follows the formation of social groups based on different sets of values. It is natural and evolutionary advantageous for people to conform to social norms, as it allows them to experience community and support. In addition, people often adjust preferences to a greater extent to align with others in close social circles with them. Dr. Grzywacz’s lecture also added the factor of expert opinion, which resulted in a pattern in which participants shifted their aesthetic responses to more closely align with an expert. 

            This research serves as an example of herd mentality, in which people tended to fall into islands rather than expressing unique, individual preferences. This is a pattern of social behavior that may seem familiar across many aspects of society: present in religion, politics, sports, and organizations that all come together for shared interests. An important aspect of this grouping or herd mentality is that it is polarizing, meaning that distinct groups form based on different values or preferences. In the article, personality did not have significant effects on placement into an island, or social group. This could allude to the fact that despite individual characteristics that makeup our person, people tend to exhibit behaviors of social conformity. However, other cultural aspects or variables could lead to effects on group polarization. Dr. Grzywacz and collaborators found that gender led to significant difference in island placement. So, while people did not have an aesthetic preference based on their personality, their gender was a significant predictor of which island they would fall into. 

            Polarization, as seen in today’s society, is largely shaped by the modern technological era we live in. Social media is a driving force in the world, providing people with means of information, communication, and entertainment. The social media platforms used by billions of people daily are driven by algorithms. The Scientific American article “Social Media Algorithms Warp How People Learn from Each Other” outlines how algorithms boost information that is “prestigious” or “in-group.” When considering Dr. Grzywacz’s research, the effects of prestige and in-group information can be considered driving factors towards polarization. People looking for social acceptance or belonging will tend to agree more with information similar to what they or those close to them believe, and they will also alter their beliefs to match those considered reliable experts. The prestige factor of social media content becomes difficult to consider due to the lack of reliable sourcing often found in social media sources, yet users may not be able to identify misinformation and still allow it to sway their preferences. A February 2024 article from The Guardian entitled “Social media algorithms ‘amplifying misogynistic content’ ” finds that young men are especially vulnerable to radicalization on popular social media platform TikTok, whose algorithm pushed four times as much misogynistic content within five days of creating an account with its gender identity set as male. This could have large implications when considering the significant difference in gender effects on polarization in aesthetic values, suggesting that gender socialization plays a role in deciding social groups and values. 

References

Brady, W., FF4BB2BC-B3A4-4FBD-B8A4EE080E321552, /author/the-Conversation-Us/, 4SGwgVplZn78AUrz0vAX2R, US, T. C., The-Conversation-Us, & Curated by professional editors, T. C. offers informed commentary and debate on the issues affecting our world. (2024, February 20). Social media algorithms warp how people learn from each other. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/social-media-algorithms-warp-how-people-learn-from-each-other/

 Weale, S. (2024, February 6). Social media algorithms “amplifying misogynistic content.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/media/2024/feb/06/social-media-algorithms-amplifying-misogynistic-content

Mather, K.B., Aleem, H., Rhee, Y. et al. Social groups and polarization of aesthetic values from symmetry and complexity. Sci Rep 13, 21507 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-47835-w

Dolphins, Drugs, Stress, and Social Interaction Behaviors

Though the oceans are revered for their beauty and diversity of sealife, unfortunately, sea creatures aren’t immune to stresses and drug exposure. Off the Gulf of Mexico, several drugs, like fentanyl, were detected in the blubber tissues of many dolphins, raising concern for the health of the oceans (Jacobo). Researchers conducted mass spectrometry tests on 89 dolphin tissues, 83 of them from live dolphins, and all of the samples had positive results for drugs with fentanyl being the most prevalent in 24 dolphins. Additionally, these dolphin samples came from varying years, suggesting that the drugs in the Gulf of Mexico waterways may have been around for nearly a decade (Jacobo). However, dolphins don’t drink water for hydration; they receive hydration from consuming prey, implying that the dolphins aren’t the only sea creatures contaminated by the drugs in the water. Given this information, drug pollution in the water may have been a longstanding and widespread issue, adding to the many stressors that sealife currently faces (Jacobo). Sea creatures already have to deal with oil spills, noise pollution, chemical spills, vessel traffic, algal blooms, and environmental destruction for tourism on top of this drug pollution issue. No research has been done to elucidate the long-term effects of drugs on sea creatures, and new research on the impact of human-caused stressors on sealife involving the drug stressor is needed to aid ocean conservation efforts (Jacobo).

The drug stressor and other human-caused stressors dolphins and other sea creatures face generates an interesting conversation with the research done by Dr. Sodhi and her colleagues. In their study “Deficits of Hippocampal RNA Editing and Social Interaction Resulting from Prenatal Stress are Mitigated by Clozapine,” Dr. Sodhi and her fellow researchers sought to explain the relationship between neurological disorders and prenatal stress that affect social behavior (Bristow et al.). They hypothesized that social interaction deficits in male mice birthed from mothers who were stressed in the prenatal stage were due to RNA editing. They also hypothesized that antipsychotic drug treatment could alleviate those deficits (Bristow et al.). Dr. Sodhi and her colleagues conducted this research as it is known that impaired brain development is a result of psychological distress during pregnancy, which could lead to brain disorders such as schizophrenia and autism. For the results, Dr. Sodhi and her fellow researchers found that the clozapine drug treatment mitigated the behavioral defects of the mice offspring from prenatal-stressed mothers (Bristow et al.).

Dr. Sodhi’s research highlights a possible new avenue for marine researchers to explore: the effects of drug stressors on dolphins and other sea life. In her research with her colleagues, Dr. Sodhi showed how prenatal stress in mice mothers resulted in socially deficient mice offspring (Bristow et al.). While it may be a challenge to replicate, it would be beneficial for marine research to know how human-caused stressors affect sea life developmentally, especially drug stressors on prenatal development. Information that could be gleaned from such research would also be helpful for ocean conservation efforts. It would also be interesting to see further research elucidate how the molecular processes in the sea creatures’ brains were affected by the pollution and stressors around them. While Dr. Sodhi’s research may not completely apply to the dolphins and sea creatures undergoing drug pollution and other human-caused stressors, it is interesting to connect this scientific research to a real-world issue.

Bristow, Greg C., et al. “Deficits of Hippocampal RNA Editing and Social Interaction Resulting

from Prenatal Stress are Mitigated by Clozapine.” bioRxiv, 2 Feb. 2021,

https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.02.02.429408. 

Jacobo, Julia. “Several Drugs, Including Fentanyl, Found in Bottlenose Dolphins in Gulf of 

Mexico, Scientists Say.” ABC News, ABC News Network, 6 Dec. 2024, 

abcnews.go.com/International/drugs-including-fentanyl-found-bottleneck-dolphins-gulf-

mexico/story?id=116523978.

“Why are birds smart?”

 Dr. Dianno Marone presented a compelling paper questioning why birds are capable of complex cognition. Corvids and parrots possess very light brains, some as light as one gram, and no isocortex, so scientists would not have predicted their cognitive abilities being comparable to apes. Over the years, birds have been regarded as creatures of simple instincts, only worried about finding worms and building nests. However, recent research challenges this view, showing that certain bird species possess remarkable cognitive abilities that suggest a level of intelligence that far exceeds expectations. These abilities—like problem-solving, social learning, and even tool use—have led scientists to reconsider the mental capacities of these once seemingly simple creatures.

It has been challenging for scientists to understand what aspect of the bird brian allows for higher cognitive functioning. Bird brains are seemingly mostly made up of homogenous nuclear clusters, which would suggest limited cognition, but it has been shown that birds have a brain area that serves as a prefrontal cortex-like area. 

Birds such as crows, ravens, and parrots have been shown to exhibit problem-solving skills that rival those of primates. In a groundbreaking study by Emil M. P. Emery and Nicola S. Clayton (2004), published in Science, demonstrates how Eurasian jays plan for future needs, an ability previously believed to be exclusive to humans and apes. Their research showed that these birds can store away food in preparation for future scarcity and even engage in deceptive behavior to protect their resources. Scientists have begun to look more into anatomical and cognitive similarities to search for an answer to their intellect. 

One of the reasons why we are so surprised by birds' intelligence is rooted in our own cognitive biases. Humans tend to anthropomorphize animals, attributing to them human-like qualities that may not be applicable. This inclination often leads us to underestimate the mental capacity of species whose behaviors we fail to understand. Moreover, there is a misconception that intelligence is directly linked to brain size or structure. Birds have relatively small brains compared to mammals, but studies, like those of cognitive ethologist Alex Kacelnik, show that certain bird species, particularly crows, have highly developed neural structures that enable complex thinking. The compactness of the bird brain doesn’t limit its intellectual capacity but rather allows for highly efficient neural processing.

Work Cited

Emery, E. M. P., & Clayton, N. S. (2004). The mentality of crows: Convergent evolution of intelligence in corvids and apes. Science, 306(5703), 1903-1907.

Güntürkün O, Pusch R, Rose J. Why birds are smart. Trends Cogn Sci. 2024 Mar;28(3):197-209. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2023.11.002. Epub 2023 Dec 13. PMID: 38097447; PMCID: PMC10940863.

The Social and Psychological Implications of 'Pretty Privilege'

     Unless you are a twin, chances are you possess your own unique combination of physical characteristics. In addition to this, you may have developed your own sense of style or know which way to present as the most aesthetically pleasing for yourself. As people are drawn to many different combinations of aesthetics and physical features, one may wonder, what are the implications of these preferences on society? And where do these preferences come from? Research suggests that traits we may find pleasing depend heavily on the context of one's cultural environment as well as on biological processes. Depending on if someone displays conventionally attractive traits given the context in which they are desired, this person may experience preferential treatment leading to them being presented with more opportunities and positive assumptions about their character. This social phenomenon deemed 'pretty privilege' is discussed within a psychology magazine article titled "What Is the Psychology of Pretty Privilege?" as written by the Psychologs admin. In this article, details on the psychological mechanisms providing the social effect of 'pretty priviledge' are given. 

It is suggested that this bias can come from evolutionary desires: for example, physical fitness is something considered attractive in organisms across all ecosystems in choosing a mate as it allows for the production of healthy offspring. Humans are no different in this sense. This can be seen throughout history as societies plagued with food scarcity may have seen biological markers such as higher body fat percentage to be more desirable because it means that person may have an abundance of food resources and/or can survive longer without food. In addition to this, it has been revealed that facial symmetry and body ratio proportions also show a pattern in attraction. According to an article titled "The Science Behind Why We Find Certain People Attractive" by Dina Cheney, "research has also shown straight men prefer women with a waist-to-hip ratio of about 70%" and this is justified by the fact that most women who vary from that percentage are more likely to have issues such as pregnancy loss and may be susceptible to certain diseases and problems with fertility. However, this article does note that this finding is based on relatively small groups of mainly white people so it doesn't address the possible disparities between people of other races or represent the overall population. This is important to understand as within social context, the different expression of race and any prejudices surrounding it may also be a deciding factor in whether one is considered to have 'pretty privilege' and the levels in which they may experience it.

This conversation can also be connected to research on social polarization detailing that aesthetic preferences are dependent on two visual variables: symmetry and complexity. This study, titled "Social groups and polarization of aesthetic values from symmetry and complexity" as presented by Norberto M. Grzywacz (et al.) originally hypothesized that most people prefer images with high symmetry and low complexity. This was tested through using a method in which participants were given a range of images to assess, created algorithmically to vary in levels of symmetry and complexity. Participants then rated which images they preferred most on a scale of 1-10. The results of this experiment didn't support their original hypothesis, with the finding being that most subjects formed two distinct "islands" of preference. One island consisted of images that were high symmetry, regardless of complexity and the other that showed preference for low-complexity, regardless of symmetry. The formation of these islands also seemed to be influenced by gender as well. In addition to this, there were also a few people who didn't belong to either island, and these are people who mentioned having a higher art exposure.

These results may suggest that even though there may be biological reasons for why people prefer certain visual traits, this also socially influenced by the environment one may be accustomed to. This variability in experiences and preferences can explain why the applied bias of 'pretty privilege' may not adhere to a monolithic standard throughout the world's population as a whole, and is instead dependent on differing subsets of society.

References

Cheney Dina, Hallett Cristina (2019). "The Science Behind 

Why We Find Certain People Attractive". Mindbodygreen, https://www.mindbodygreen.com/articles/science-   behind-why-we-find-certain-people-attractive?srsltid=AfmBOoprXKiNS0C8EpVIm9l9N1ENoJkBRYRcL9lkdo6_aaUNXyd_q8ca 

Mather, K. B., Aleem, H., Rhee, Y., & Grzywacz, N. M. (2023). Social groups and polarization of 

aesthetic values from symmetry and complexity. Scientific Reports, 13, Article 21507. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-47835-w 

Psychologs admin (2023). "What Is the Psychology of Pretty Privilege?" 

Psychologs, https://www.psychologs.com/what-is-the-psychology-of-pretty-privilege/#:~:text=From%20an%20evolutionary%20standpoint%2C%20humans,the%20form%20of%20pretty%20privilege.  

Increasing Racial Representation of adolescent athletes.

 

According to an article CNN Health Only 5.7% of US doctors are Black, and experts warn the shortage harms public health Seun Adebagbo quoted that

“black people face persistent disparities in health care and health outcomes. These include higher uninsured rates, being more likely to go without care due to cost, and worse reported health status Their life expectancy is nearly five years shorter compared to white people”.

So, first and foremost I just want to thank the researchers for doing this study because as a African American and also being a member in the African American community I see consciously the disadvantages and under representation when it comes to the African American community and health. With the way things are going in the world I believe that shedding light on these disparities has never been more important.

In this study researchers looked at how negative emotions, like frustration, affect a brain function called cognitive inhibition. Cognitive inhibition is important for controlling behavior, regulating mood, and influences decision making.  Researchers focused on adolescent athletes, particularly black athletes, because black individuals are underrepresented in brain health studies, even though they are heavily involved in sports. For the study the researchers used a brain monitoring method called (EEG) to study how frustration impacts brain responses in adolescent athletes during preseason (before contact sports) and postseason.

They found that a specific brain signal called the N2 component showed changes during frustration, but the effects were weaker after the season ended. Over time, during frustration, brain responses became less intense, showing how emotions dynamically interfere with cognitive inhibition.

Some questions for the future could be

Are there cultural or environmental factors that influence how athletes from different racial backgrounds respond to frustration or brain injury?

Could findings from this study help in designing sport-related protocols to better protect mental and emotional health in black communties?