You Snooze, You Lose?

All humans have a circadian rhythm which is an internal clock that is regulated by our environment. It may also be affected by irregular sleep patterns, causing an imbalance between our homeostatic process and circadian rhythm. As our circadian rhythm remains consistent on a 24 hour cycle, the homeostatic cycle will fluctuate depending on the amount of sleep we may get.

Shift workers often face the consequences of homeostatic buildup due to their inconsistent sleep times. Therefore, many suffer from shift work disorder which includes symptoms of difficulty concentrating, lack of energy, irritability, insomnia, and depression. This is similar to students who pull all-nighters. When we miss a night of sleep, we slowly begin to increase our homeostatic process (or our additional sleep pressure). We often times feel a second wind of wakefulness in the early morning hours, and that is when our circadian rhythm kicks in. Once the sun comes out, our body is triggered to release cortisol in the attempts to wake you up. As the day goes on our sleep pressure greatens, and it will take a greater amount of time to recuperate from that sleep debt.

Dr. Cavanaugh presented on these issues and discussed how it is important to maintain a regulated sleep cycle to remain as productive as possible. The greater one’s sleep debt, then the more physiological issues will arise for people.

As students we face many disruptions to our internal clock due to our inconsistent sleep schedules. We may sleep consistently from 11 PM to 9 AM on school nights, but on the weekend we may sleep at 4 AM and wake up at 1 PM. This may be affecting our internal clock causing similar issues as shift work disorder. So next time you need an excuse for your 8 AM class, tell your teacher you need your sleep!

Bibliography: https://smoens.wordpress.com/2010/12/06/homeostatic-and-circadian-processes-underlying-the-sleep-wake-cycle-1/

https://sleepfoundation.org/shift-work/content/shift-work-disorder-%E2%80%93-symptoms

Advances in Stroke Recovery

My father suffered from the effects of a stroke for 8 years before he passed away last year. As unfortunate as it was to have him gone, seeing everything that the stroke had put him through was even more disheartening than his passing itself. So on the most personal level, the highlight of Dr. Chen's lecture on Peripheral Nerve Stimulation (PNS), at Loyola University Chicago, was when he was going over everything that his research could accomplish for stroke recovery.

PNS works because of the additional electrical energy provided from afferent neural networks. When paired with direct current stimulation (tDCS), PNS can help yield better results for motor performance in disabled stroke victims than either of the two stimulations alone. This research has the potential to be so beneficial to others who are in a similar state as my father was, so I am excited to see how it evolves in the future.

In addition to this neurological advancement, the Wall Street Journal also shared an article with some new technological advancements that could improve rehabilitation. These are tools that are "more motivating and engaging" for patients than standard physical therapy alone. One of the most interesting to me was the robotic exoskeleton. The robots attach to the impaired bodily area and assist with movement. As the person's motor skills gradually improve, the support of the robot is gradually taken away. This is great because the robot will allow a person to be more independent at a quicker rate than standard therapy would allow. Video games are another method of motor recovery. One of these systems involves a Wii-like remote and specially designed games for motor recovery. These kinds of therapies are entertaining and produce great results since simple, repetitive exercises can get tedious.

Strokes are the leading cause of tong-term disability and they reduce mobility in more than half of survivors. It's terrifying to think that in a split moment, the rest of your life or the life of a loved one can be altered so devastatingly. Hearing Dr. Chen's talk and associating it with this article sheds light on all those wonderful people who are dedicating their lives to ensure that not everyone is forever a victim to this disease. I can't wait to see where the researches of people like Dr. Chen will take us in fighting this disease.


High Tech Tools Show Promise for Stroke Recovery
https://www.wsj.com/articles/high-tech-tools-show-promise-for-stroke-recovery-1466993040

My Brain Made Me Do It

MRI studies reveal that psychopathic violent offenders are unable to learn from punishment due to abnormalities in their brains.

Society expects criminal behavior to be punished in forms of rehabilitation programs to reinforce social norms, but what if punishment from these programs cannot modify their behavior? 

Scientists have recently found that the brains of psychopaths have a distinct organization in its neuronetwork. This allows these individuals to only consider the positive consequences of their actions, and fail to take into account the negative outcomes of their decisions.

Typically in a normal subject, punishment signals the necessity to change behavior. However, in Hodgins' and Dr. Blackwood's findings in their MRI study, they find that offenders have difficulty learning from punishment and therefore no initiative to change their behavior from their previous actions. 

To provide evidence for this claim, researchers in the United Kingdom examined the structure and functioning of 12 violent offenders with psychopathy and social personality disorder, 20 violent offenders with only social personality disorder, and 18 non-offenders (control subjects). During the MRI scanning, participants completed an image-matching task which was designed to evaluate the individual's behavior change given  positive and negative feedback to their responses. In order to validate their claim on psychopathic difference in neuronetworks, previously awarded answers from the beginning of the scan would later be punished. While analyzing the results, the scientists found an abnormal response in violent offenders with psychopathy in comparison with non-offenders and the violent offenders without psychopathy.

In Dr. Jordan Grafman's research on behavioral norms, he explores the value of morals and takes on a neuroscientific approach by evaluating behavioral differences in patients with frontal lobe lesions through CT scans compared to control subjects. In his article "The Neural Basis of Human Moral Cognition," Grafman defines morality as "the consensus of manners and customs within a social group, or to an inclination to behave in some ways but not in others."  In Blackwood and Hodgins' study, they refer to a psychopath as one who displays "moral depravity" or "moral insanity," due to their inability to behave in a particular way described by society. 

Grafman's findings in his ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex brain lesions and traumatic brain injury study determined the dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex to be the source of intention, the Posterior Cortex in change of understanding if harm was produced, and finally, the ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex in understanding the outcome of an action. Results also determined the ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex to play a significant role in concept formation. This ability is imperative in behavior modulation due to its ability of understanding societal moral. From this we can concur the affiliation of these regions to the abnormalities in psychopathic violent offenders due to their inability to understand the negative impact of the outcome of an action, harm produced from their individual crimes and the concept formation of punishment signaling for behavioral change.

Since most violent crimes are committed by individuals who display conduct problems from a young age, this new insight to the neural mechanisms behind the actions of violent offenders with psychopathy provides a push for learning-based interventions in children to target brain mechanisms which underlie the abnormal neural development before becoming a permanent network. This approach would hopefully change the behavior in adulthood and therefore reduce overall violent crime.

References

McIntosh, James. "Psychopaths' brains unable to fully process punishment." Medical News Today. MediLexicon, Intl., 29 Jan. 2015. Web. 28 Feb. 2017. <http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/288669.php>

Moll, Jorge, Roland Zahn, Ricardo De Oliveira-Souza, Frank Krueger, and Jordan Grafman. "Opinion: The neural basis of human moral cognition." Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6.10 (2005): 799-809. Web.

Photo References

Figure 1:

GE Healthcare. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2017, from http://www3.gehealthcare.com/en/products/categories/magnetic_resonance_imaging/mr_applications/neuro_imaging

Figure 2:

When looking at a brain scan; what is the difference between a psychopath and a Sociopath or would the scans look the same? (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2017, from https://www.quora.com/When-looking-at-a-brain-scan-what-is-the-difference-between-a-psychopath-and-a-Sociopath-or-would-the-scans-look-the-same

A Promising Stride Towards the Successful Rehabilitation of Paralysis

A Promising Stride Towards the Successful Rehabilitation of Paralysis 

Dr. Vincent Chen’s most recent work on peripheral neural stimulation takes a look into the contribution of the corticospinal system in the aforementioned stimulation. Using rabbits as test subjects, Chen and colleagues tested the possibility of using brain and peripheral nerve stimulation to assist in therapeutic rehabilitation. They developed electrical modalities for targeted neuromodulation, so in this way they could determine the proper method of fostering efficient rehabilitation, and thus recovery. In order to do this, they determined specific regions to target with the electrical stimulus. The reasoning behind using rabbits surrounds the similarity in anatomy of quadriceps with humans, also, they can use anesthesia and in vivo treatments without concern for detrimental human effects. They used several modalities such as transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS), transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation, transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation, and repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. At the end of the study, they established that repeated peripheral and brain stimulation did produce a higher energy output in the rabbit leg, insisting nerve potentiation occurred. This is relevant in many contemporary topics: stroke, myocardial infarctions, spinal injuries, and other physically disabling conditions.

A recent article has shown promising results in paraplegic rehabilitation. A research team in Sweden has successfully restored the walking ability of rats with spinal lesions. Through intensive electrical stimulation and physical rehabilitation, the spinal connections were restored. This was successful to such an extent that some rats were able to regain the ability to run. The same idea in the Chen project was executed here, brain and spinal stimulation were induced, along with growth-promoting chemicals. The rats were put on a daily regimen of treadmill exercises using a vest to hold them upright with legs dangling. After 30 minutes of exercise for three weeks, rats started to show progress, moving voluntarily. After six weeks, the rats could walk or run on their own will. Now that they have shown that regeneration of severed spinal nerves is a possibility, they are ready to attempt human testing with this plan. From this, we see parallelism in the presentation by Dr. Chen. 

The ability for humans to induce neuronal regeneration and potentiation is a grand step into establishing an efficient method for rehabilitation in paralyzed patients. This is relevant in many ways, the most obvious is the restoration of motor control. Paralysis causes a tremendous burden in the lives of sufferers, normal activities become extraordinary obstacles. Hopefully, the human trials show positive results, hinting at the answer towards reversing paralyzing injuries.  

Works Cited:

Dr. Chen Research Paper: 10.1016/j.brs.2015.09.012

Chen, Chiun-Fan, Yin-Tsong Lin, Wen-Shiang Chen, and Felipe Fregni. "Contribution of Corticospinal Modulation and Total Electrical Energy for Peripheral-Nerve-Stimulation-Induced Neuroplasticity as Indexed by Additional Muscular Force." Brain Stimulation 9.1 (2016): 133-40. Web. <http://www.brainstimjrnl.com/article/S1935-861X(15)01133-X/abstract>.

Image: "How Humans, Monkeys Recover from Paralysis." The Hans India. The Hans India, 29 Aug. 2015. Web. 28 Feb. 2017. <http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/2015-08-29/How-humans-monkeys-recover-from-paralysis-173153>.

Video and Article: Carey, Benedict. "In Rat Experiment, New Hope for Spine Injuries." The New York Times. The New York Times, 31 May 2012. Web. 28 Feb. 2017. <http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/health/in-rat-experiment-new-hope-for-spine-injuries.html>. 

Sleeping in the Shade

Everyone runs on a clock. Whether we run on the time from our watches, on a sundial, or from the clocks on the screens of our phones, we are primed to live our lives alongside the ticking of these clocks. We seem to be under the control of the time we are given throughout the day. However, we fail to recognize that in a small part of our brain, there are tiny clocks that control us in more ways than we understand. While we do wake up and sleep along with the rising and setting of the sun, our internal clock, or circadian rhythm, has a much greater control in this cycle than is seen.

Normal Circadian and Homeostatic Sleep Drive
(howsleepworks.com)

Our circadian rhythm runs on external cues, such as light, to entrain us to the 24-hour cycle that is our normal day. Circadian drive also works along with homeostatic drive to regulate our sleep-wake cycles. Homeostasis is our bodies' ability to maintain its stability. Our homeostatic drive to sleep is an indicator that our bodies are feeling the pressure to sleep in order to maintain its stability. This usually occurs during the evening, which explains why we want to sleep at night. But what makes us want to sleep at night instead of during the day?

In "The Drosophila Circadian Clock Gates Sleep through Time-of-Day Dependent Modulation of Sleep-Promoting Neurons," Dr. Cavanaugh concluded that our circadian clock, also known as the suprachaismatic nucleus (SCN), has a direct role in the regulation of sleep, and actively inhibits sleep at specific times throughout the day. Our internal clock designates the time when melatonin is secreted. The SCN inhibits melatonin release in the presence of light, which is why we stay active during the day. Melatonin is secreted, by order of our internal clock, in the evening, which causes us to feel sleepy. When our circadian drive fluctuates to a higher level, combined with the higher homeostatic drive to sleep, we begin to feel tired and fall asleep easier. 

This seems to work well until we begin to watch TV, use our computers, or check our phones. Because our eyes use light to entrain to the light and dark cycles of our day, light has an important role on SCN stimulation. The blue light from our technology stimulates the SCN to delay the release of melatonin, preventing us from falling asleep when we should. We would never think that these would be the culprits to many sleeping disorders or health problems, but the artificial blue light that is emitted from these screens inhibits circadian control of melatonin, preventing us from falling asleep, even when our homeostatic drive to sleep is high. Because we live in anticipation of food intake and threats while awake, as opposed to when we are asleep, our metabolism and cortisol levels are higher in the day. When we throw our cycles out of whack, our bodies fail to power off, and our metabolism and stress response systems become active when they shouldn't be.  

This artificial blue light does a lot more damage than we would like to believe. The longer we stay awake, the more cortisol, our bodies' stress hormone, is released. When cortisol is released over a long period of time, it has negative effects on our bodies' immune systems. The inability to sleep well most clearly causes insomnia and other sleep disorders, but it is less prominently known to cause a weakened immune system, higher incidence to obesity and diabetes, higher risk of cardiovascular diseases, and increased risk of mood disorders and depression. Rather than treating the many negative and dangerous effects of the artificial light, we need a way to prevent them from happening.

The unsurmountable issue is that these forms of technology are so integrated in our daily life, that it seems nearly impossible to remove them and live in a life without this blue light. And we shouldn't have to.

Amber Lens Reduces Blue Light from Entering the Eye
(psychologytoday.com)

Recent studies at Harvard University have supported that the removal of blue light, especially later in the evening when the sun would set, allows our internal clocks to release melatonin and help us fall asleep better and stay asleep longer. Scientists have looked into amber-tinted sunglasses that block the blue light from entering our eyes. But is wearing a pair of shades really the scientific shield to all of the negative effects of the menacing blue light? Of course it is! By reducing the strain that blue light has on the SCN, melatonin release can be better stimulated at the right times, reducing the increase of cortisol release in the body, and finally improving our immune systems. 

And the best part about this solution: no side effects! (Unless looking super cool indoors is considered a side effect.)

Amber-tinted Sunglasses (psychologytoday.com)

Further research is necessary to test the true effectiveness of these amber-tinted shades, but it is clear to see that reducing this blue light in our lives tremendously improves our sleep schedules, and, in turn, reduces the risks for all of negative side effects that melatonin delay brings. We need to think twice about our use of technology, and take precautionary measures to prevent these negative effects. Whether it's limiting the amount of TV time before bed or using the ambient mode on our iPhones, it is important that we take the initiative to take control back of our internal clocks. Nonetheless, putting on a pair of sunglasses seems to be the easiest (and coolest) way to prevent this blue light without sacrificing our technology-driven lifestyles. 

Sleep: the Key to a Healthier Lifestyle?

 

Most people love coming home from a long day at work to relax and then hopefully get a full night’s sleep. College students, such as myself, jump at any chance to get a couple hours of sleep, even if it’s a nap in the middle of the day. Sleep is very important for important for the body. If not enough sleep is obtained, the body will start to slow down certain processes. Dr. Cavanaugh, a neuroscience professor who specializes in sleep at Loyola University Chicago, gave a talk about his research in the neuroscience seminar class. Dr. Cavanaugh explained to us that the function of sleep is currently unknown. While we may not know exactly why we sleep, there are many experiments that prove sleep is definitely necessary to the body. In fact, if we do not get enough sleep in the night, it is theorized that we build up a sleep debt. This sleep debt is the amount of sleep that needs to be made up in a future sleep. While everyone has a different needed sleep time, if you do not sleep that amount in the night then it will add up to your sleep debt. Unfortunately even with all the research suggesting that sleep is very important, many people do not get the recommended hours of sleep.

            The lack of sleep for some people has been such a problem in society that many new advances in technology are now coming out in order to promote better sleep patterns. Why is this? It has been theorized that the blue light in our technology, such as phones and computers, are causing a disruption in our circadian rhythms. This is causing many people to have trouble sleeping at the right times because of their exposure of blue light. With the increase of people’s attachment to their devices, this is becoming a big issue. So much so that companies are starting to make special light bulbs that are meant for either the day or night, with varying hues of light. An article, in the New York Times, talks about these light bulbs and different people who have tried them. It also explains how there are different ways to make your phone or computer to emit less blue light during the later evening times. The article gathers some support from doctors who are backing up these lights, saying that they are “something to watch.” These lights seem like they may be helpful but how much affect do they really have? It is hard to say at the moment how much of an effect that these products are having on our sleep, but many people are reporting that it seems to help.

            The lack of sleep in people comes with many health hazards. Dr. Cavanaugh spoke about how sleep helps to consolidation memories. Without proper sleep, you are less likely to remember something compared to if you had a full night’s rest. Other research is showing that lack of sleep is even leading to weight gain and obesity in some people, according to an article in the New York Times.  The article was written based off a study that was published in the Journal of Sleep. This study is saying that when you are lacking in sleep, receptors in your brain are causing a craving for food. These are the same receptors that cause “munchies” when smoking marijuana. The study took participants and placed them into groups of sleep deprivation or regular night’s sleep. The participants were given two normal size meals and then an unlimited number of snacks ranging in nutritional value. They found that while the participants ate the same amount of calories in the meals, but the sleep deprivation group ate twice as much in snacks and reported feeling hungrier than the control group.

            While sleeping is often neglected by most people, studies suggest that we should be getting a full night’s rest whenever possible. The health benefits are numerous, ranging from increased memory performance to less food cravings. With all of the new technology coming out to improve sleep, maybe we should look to invest more for our well-beings. Also maybe next time that Netflix asks you “Are you still watching?” in the middle of the night, we should consider saying no and try to get some sleep. Your body may thank you later.    

Resources:

Dr. Daniel Cavanaugh, Lecture, Loyola University Chicago, February 14, 2017.

https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/10/realestate/light-bulbs-that-help-you-sleep.html?_r=0

      

https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/05/science/sleep-eating-craving-food.html

Etanercept: The Miracle Drug

Stroke is the leading cause of serious, long-term disability in the United States. There are approximately 795,000 strokes in the United States yearly, and of those, approximately 655,000 survive, many with serious disability. Strokes occur when there is a loss of blood to a part of the brain, resulting in oxygen deprivation, causing cell death and disabilities like paralysis or speech and language problems, for which rehabilitation is needed.

            Vincent Chen, an assistant professor at Loyola University Chicago, came in to talk about the use of brain and peripheral nerve stimulation to assist neurorehabilitation. He mentioned that after a stroke, the balance of inhibition is disrupted in the brain, and clinicians must decrease the excitability of the unaffected hemisphere to balance the brain. Chen and his colleagues concluded that electrical stimulation pulses could contribute to neuromodulation, leading to therapy for stroke patients. They determined that recovery is faster when electrical modulation targets specific regions. Unfortunately, Chen’s study was limited to rabbit subjects.

There has been another study in neurorehabilitation, however, with human subjects. There is evidence that stroke patients or patients with other traumatic and serious injuries to the brain have improved their state of paralysis or speech problems with a single dose of a drug called etanercept (brand name Enbrel), which targets inflammation in the brain. It works by targeting and neutralizing disease-causing levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which is a signaling molecule involved in stroke and other severe brain injuries. There have been many positive effects of this drug, and the improvement of the patient is almost immediate. This study is still in its’ initial stages, so clinicians do not know whether patients who receive this treatment will need another dose of the drug or if the effects are permanent. Even so, it is proving very effective in treating paralysis and speech and language problems in patients who have experienced serious brain injury or stroke.

           

Resources

Springer. "New Hope for Survivors of Stroke and Traumatic Brain Injury." ScienceDaily.

            ScienceDaily, 31 Oct. 2012. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.

"The Internet Stroke Center." The Internet Stroke Center. An Independent Web Resource for

Information about Stroke Care and Research. N.p., 1997. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.

Ignatowski, Tracey A., Robert N. Spengler, Krishnan M. Dhandapani, Hedy Folkersma, Roger

F. Butterworth, and Edward Tobinick. "Perispinal Etanercept for Post-Stroke Neurological and Cognitive Dysfunction: Scientific Rationale and Current Evidence." CNS Drugs. Springer International Publishing, 2014. Web. 28 Feb. 2017.

http://cdn.theatlantic.com/static/mt/assets/science/enbrel-pkg.gif

The Benefits of Music Education

Although I do not consider myself a musician, music has always been an integral part of my life. From sing-along performances put on by my preschool and kindergarten classes, to playing in the school band and attending music class throughout elementary school and junior high, to singing in my high school choir, I have consistently been involved in music in some shape or form.

I have never thought twice about growing up immersed in music or the effect it may have had on me. Music is simply something that I have always enjoyed. Dr. Raymond Dye’s presentation, Musical Experience and Auditory Selective Attention, provided me with insight regarding the benefits of music experience that I had not previously been aware of. He explained how musicians must manipulate instruments to produce sequences of notes of proper pitch and temporal pattern and how this involves the use of both working memory and selective attention. Previous work has shown that music engagement enhances language processing. Musicians have also demonstrated a more robust brainstem-evoked response than non-musicians when listening to recordings of vowel sounds. In order to study selective attention, the researchers used a MUSE survey to assess musical engagement styles, which allowed for interpretation of the Synthetic Analytic Listening Procedure in individuals with varying degrees of musical experience. Musicians regularly involved in active performance scored the highest on the selective attention task. Interestingly, individuals with musical training that do not actively perform did not perform as well on the task.

            This topic relates to a study carried out by Nina Kraus of Northwestern University. She explored the connection between rhythm and reading skills in adolescents. She found that good beat-keepers respond to speech more consistently than people who fail to tap in time. She explains that music teaches you to pay attention to the important sounds in speech. Practicing music has also shown to improve reading ability, due to the fact that reading involves recognizing associations between text symbols and the sounds of specific letters.

            With the benefits of musical experience becoming increasingly clear, recent legislation concerning music education comes as no surprise. On December 10, 2015, President Obama ratified the Every Child Achieves Act, which increased federal funding of the arts and added the arts and music to the definition of a “well-rounded education.” Integration of music education and performance into the nation-wide curriculum creates the potential to develop a generation of individuals with a unique and diverse skillset that extends beyond basic musical ability.

Works Cited

"ESEA Reauthorization Is Finalized as Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)." Art Educators. National Art Education Association, Dec. 2015. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.

Laidman, Jenni. "Music Helps Kids Read." Scientific American. Nature America, 1 May 2014. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.

Swaminathan, Jayaganesh, Christine R. Mason, Timothy M. Streeter, Virginia Best, Gerald Kidd, Jr., and Aniruddh D. Patel. "Musical Training, Individual Differences and the Cocktail Party Problem." Scientific Reports 5 (2015): n. pag. Nature. Web. 25 Feb. 2017.