Positive Emotion Regulation in the Hippocampus

Mood disorders affect millions of people every year and can appear at nearly any point in a person’s lifespan. Cases of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorder in particular saw a large uptake during the COVID-19 pandemic. Unfortunately, roughly two-thirds of patients diagnosed with major depressive disorder do not receive sufficient treatment through medication and therapy (Zhu). Living with mental health disorders can create obstacles in one’s social, personal, and professional life that would not otherwise be there. One recent area of research into the treatment of mood disorders has focused on emotion regulation.

In her talk, Dr. Rebecca Silton, professor in the psychology department at Loyola University Chicago, discussed the role of positive emotion regulation in the treatment of depressive symptoms and the lack of exploration in this field. Dr. Silton presented savoring strategies as being a common mechanism for the upregulation of positive emotions. Savoring was defined as “the capacity ‘to attend to, appreciate, and enhance the positive experience in one’s life’” (Silton et al.). Savoring occurs as the anticipation of a future positive event, focusing on a present positive event, or reminiscing of a past positive experience. While there have been some resources devoted to positive psychology strategies and mindfulness to improve positive emotion regulation and savoring, Dr. Silton expressed a need for further research into the neurophysiological underpinnings of positive emotion regulation.

A study conducted by Yashuo Zhu et al. used real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging neurofeedback to train emotion regulation in the hippocampus of health adults. During training, the participants in the experimental group were asked to recall a positive autobiographical memory, a type of savoring that involves reminiscing about the past. After four sessions of neurofeedback training, participants in the savoring group showed increased hippocampal activity as well as increased hippocampus-amygdala connectivity. The research team also found that the anterior temporal lobe and parahippocampal gyrus were activated during neurofeedback training.

While the Zhu et al. study is a step in the right direction, further research is needed into positive emotion regulation as a treatment for mood disorders. Zhu et al. only explored one type of savoring (reminiscing) in their study. Similar studies testing whether the results replicate to savoring that anticipates future positive events and focusing on a present, positive event would be extremely beneficial to the field. Furthermore, Dr. Silton discussed ten types of savoring strategies including counting blessings and sharing with others that merit further research as to how these strategies affect hippocampal activation. Furthermore, the activation of additional brain regions in response to different savoring types and strategies should be more specifically studied, such as the amygdala. Another step research in the area of positive emotion regulation can take is to look into whether the increased hippocampal activation found in the Zhu et al. study carries over to populations diagnosed with mood disorders like major depressive disorder.

References:

    Silton, R. L., Kahrilas, I. J., Skymba, H. V., Smith, J., Bryant, F. B., & Heller, W. (2020). Regulating positive emotions: Implications for promoting well-being in individuals with depression. Emotion, 20(1), 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000675

Zhu, Y., Gao, H., Tong, L., Li, Z., Wang, L., Zhang, C., Yang, Q., & Yan, B. (2019). Emotion Regulation of Hippocampus Using Real-Time fMRI Neurofeedback in Healthy Human. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 13, 242. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00242

Circadian Clock and Cancer

 Circadian clocks are cell-autonomous timing systems that have approximately 24-hour periodic rhythms that are conserved in nearly all life. They integrate diverse environmental and metabolic stimuli to regulate biological activities, such as immune functions and cell proliferation. One of our speakers this semester, Fred Turk talked about the circadian clock and the importance of clock genes in many different scenarios. Disturbances in these rhythms caused by sleep deprivation, eating at night, or chronic jet lag are closely associated with the development of sleep and mood disorders, obesity, diabetes, and cancer. Specifically genetic and environmental perturbations of circadian rhythms largely alter the expression and activity of several tumor suppressors and oncogenes in both host and tumor tissues to favor cancer incidence and progression. Circadian disruptions can also reprogram host metabolism and immune systems, fostering an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment in multiple cancer types. Because of this Circadian rhythms are an emerging target for cancer prevention and treatment. Cancer therapy by enhancing circadian rhythms, modulating the activity of circadian clock molecules, and optimizing the icing of anticancer drugs according to the host or tumor circadian rhythms. 

Circadian rhythm is characterized by a cell autonomous autoregulatory feedback loop. Positive and negative clock regulators form transcriptional translational feedback loops that drive the rhythmic expression of genes involved in metabolic, biosynthetic, signal transduction, and cell cycle pathways. Multiple levels of regulation contribute to the molecular clockwork thereby coordinating programs by clock genes. There are approximately 20,000 oscillators or a specific group of genes that are expressed in a rhythmic pattern or periodic cycles,  in individual neurons and astrocytes in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) region of the brain. The SCN is considered a central circadian pacemaker or the master clock because its main role is to communicate retinal light information to peripheral clock systems. This connects internal body rhythms with external day and night cycles. It coordinates these rhythms via rhythmic release of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides. The phases in non-SCN regions are signaled by systemic hormone secretion. Rhythmic disturbances by physiological and environmental factors impact pathogenesis in diseases like cancer. 

The disruption of circadian rhythmicity is a common thing in modern society since the invention of artificial light sources. 80% of the world’s promulgation is now exposed to light during the night, and approximately 18-20% of workers in the USA and Europe have night or rotating shift work, making them vulnerable to multiple rhythm disorders, including cancer. Studies suggest that night shift work or chronic jet lag increases the risk of the incidence and envelope, met of the most common cancer types. In a different study, mouse models were exposed to forced circadian desynchrony regimens and this reinforced the causal relationship between circadian disturbances and cancer pathogenesis. Damage to the SCN, which is the experimental version of chronic jet lag (CJL), has been shown to cause alteration in circadian physiology and significantly accelerated the growth rates of transplanted tumors. CJL has also been shown to accelerate tumor cell cycle progression and growth rates in carcinogen-induced tumors in mice. 

Circadian disruptions dysregulated many important processes in the body like the cell cycle, DNA repair, apoptosis, senescence, autophagy, and other oncogenic and immune pathways. This dysregulation causes uncontrolled proliferation, escape from apoptosis, metastatic spread, immune evasion, enhanced angiogenesis, and anticancer drug resistance, all of these are characteristics of cancer. There is a direct involvement of clock genes in cancer predisposition and development. Also, the overexpression of circadian activators suppress proliferative and malignant phenotypes in tumor cells. There is a proposed anticancer mechanism that centers around a circadian gene that is supposedly involved in the mediation of glycolysis and the induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. In humans, 32 cancer types were revealed that several clock genes are downregulated in multiple cancers. 

Circadian rhythm based therapies or chronotherapeutic approaches to disease treatment are categorized into three different types. The first being training the clock, which entails interventions to enhance or maintain a robust circadian rhythm in feeding-fasting, sleep-wake, or light-dark cycles. The second is drugging the clock, which uses small-molecule agents to directly target a circadian clock. And thirdly, clocking the drugs, which optimizes the timing of drugs to improve efficacy and reduce adverse side effects. These can be used in a combinatorial fashion. An example of a chronotherapeutic tool used to mitigate cancer progression, is morning bright light (MBL) exposure. MBL has been widely implemented to cure sleep problems, neuropsychiatric diseases, and metabolic disorders. Studies have shown that melatonin depletion by light exposure late at night stimulates the growth of multiple human cancer xenografts and increases anticancer drug resistance.

Extensive chronobiological research has expanded the  understanding of the functional roles and mechanism of the circadian clockwork in human health and disease, including cancer. Circadian disruption negatively impact tumor molecular clocks and host circadian systems to increase cancer risk and progression. Chronophysiological or chronotherapeutic interventions is thought to benefit overall circadian health and cancer therapy. 

Lee, Y. (2021). Roles of circadian clocks in cancer pathogenesis and treatment. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 53(10), 1529–1538. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-021-00681-0

Bilingualism and it's affects on the academic success ESL students

  For a long time, there have been claims surrounding the role that bilingualism has on intelligence, creativity, attention, and many other areas of neuroscience. Many of those claims are positive, but some are negative. Bilingualism, in plain words, is mastering two languages, and in many cases, this is achieved through being raised in a dual-language household. Very many people are born into bilingual households, but bilingual individuals don’t always see the effects that speaking multiple languages has on them. Being a bilingual individual, I never understood why I was told to have an advantage in certain areas of life until I entered high school and college, as flipping between Bosnian and English was second nature to me, and not something that I thought about often. After Dr. Chung-Fat-Yim’s talk about the relationship between bilingualism and attention, I wanted to find out more about the claims for bilingual individuals, and in what ways I differ from my monolingual peers.

         I aimed to find out if these claims could also apply to students who learned English as a second language. Many schools have ESL/EFL programs, which are English as a Second (or Foreign) Language, which look to guide students through their education while also helping them improve their English. Many scientists have researched how bilingualism affects cognition and executive function, however, one surprisingly under-researched area is the effect that bilingualism has on academic success and intelligence, especially in ESL programs. Because of the limited amount of research on ESL students, Shahnaz Jumani, Dr. Saira Maqbool, and Azeem Alphonce decided to perform a study on the academic success of EFL learners, and the effect that bilingualism has on their success in school. 

        Many different factors can influence how big of an effect being bilingual has on an individual. One big factor is the age at which the second language is learned. On average, the earlier bilinguals, meaning individuals who learned the second language at a younger age, show stronger and more noticeable benefits. This is also something to note, as for ESL learners, the age at which they learn English can vary, which means that the effects could be harder for the researchers to find. 

        The researcher’s study was qualitative and consisted of students who were part of the ESL program, and instructors as well. They all attended the National University of Modern Languages in Hyderabad, Sindh Pakistan. The study had some very insightful results, both on cognition and executive function, and on the effects on academic success. Most of the results from this research came from input from ESL teachers, and from the academic interactions they have had with bilingual and monolingual students in their programs. The ESL students themselves were also able to offer. It was found that bilingualism had a positive correlation with academic success from the instructors' perspectives. In reading comprehension and writing the bilingual students outperformed the monolingual students, according to the instructors. The students also felt that being bilingual helped them understand language better as a whole, and it gave them the skills to understand concepts such as language patterns. They also claimed that it extended the range of their vocabulary, allowing them to use more colorful words to express themselves. 

        Understanding bilingualism’s effects on individuals was also something that Dr. Chung-Fat-Yim explored, where she explored the effect that it has on different areas of attention. Her studies found that bilingual individuals had stronger selective attention and a faster disengagement of attention when faced with irrelevant stimuli. Her research helped me understand another important advantage that bilingualism gives individuals, which can also contribute to academic success in many ways. Attention is important for students, especially once they enter higher education. This research, along with the research of Shahnaz Jumani et.al. shows the extent to which knowing languages can influence students and can help breach some of the negative claims made towards ESL students, as bilingualism is very clearly associated with many benefits in the academic world. 

References:

Jumani, S., Maqbool, S., & Alphonce, A. (2024). Effect of Bilingualism on Intelligence and Academic Achievement of EFL Learners. Pakistan Languages and Humanities Review, 8(1), 195–204. https://doi.org/10.47205/plhr.2024(8-I)17

 Chung-Fat-Yim, A., Calvo, N., & Grundy, J. G. (2022, May 12). The multifaceted nature of  bilingualism and attention. Frontiers. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.910382/full

Effects of Music Therapy

     Music, an integral part of human existence and culture, has recently been the subject of rigorous scientific evaluation and study. In his discussion, Dr. Dye presented compelling evidence of the positive effects playing music can have on someone. These positive impacts included improved cognitive function, hearing, and memory in older individuals and increased neuroplasticity and attention skills in younger individuals. This fascinating data prompted me to think about other impacts music can have on individuals. A study called “A Neuroscientific Perspective on Music Therapy” found music therapy to have five contributing factors: attention, emotion, cognition, behavior, and communication.
    Attention, the first component of music therapy, was analyzed, and it was found that when music is playing, it diverts the listener's attention, which can, in a way, “distract” the individual experiencing negative things such as pain, sadness, or anxiety. Scientists infer that music being played throughout medical procedures would lower anxiety and stress surrounding the procedure. This could also be applied to everyday life; if someone is experiencing a rough time, uplifting music could have the potential to “distract” the mind and improve the state of their being. 
    Emotion, the second component of music therapy, was analyzed through neuroimaging. As seen in PET scans, scientists have found that music positively affects the limbic system. Music was seen to be able to cause the onset of emotions. Different types of music have various impacts on the parts of the brain that govern emotional response, which can be used for people experiencing negative emotions due to their condition. While there is limited data surrounding this aspect of music therapy, scientists believe that music therapy could help treat and mitigate the effects of diseases and conditions that stem from the limbic system, such as depression, PTSD, and anxiety. 
    Cognition, the third contributor to music therapy, examined music’s effect on memory encoding, storage, and decoding. They found that music therapy can be utilized to ease the acclimation process of Alzheimer’s into a new environment, such as a long-term care facility. Additionally, the effect of music on social cognition was evaluated, and it was found that music prompts individuals to think about the feelings and intentions of the creator of the music, essentially trying to figure out the meaning behind the song. Through fMRI scans, scientists found that listening to music involves activating areas of the brain such as the medial prefrontal cortex and the temporoparietal junctions –related to understanding the intentions behind other people's actions. 
    Behavior, the fourth component of music therapy, was affected by the connection between cognitive and motor task initiation. This indicates an interchangeable relationship between the two, meaning that behaviors affect cognitive processing, and cognitive processing affects behavior. Additionally, behavior effects were primarily seen through emotional changes, as someone's behavior and actions change with their emotional perception of the situation. 
    The final aspect of music therapy that this article discusses is its transformative impact on communication. Music therapy can be used to aid nonverbal individuals in communicating through the sounds and actions of making music. This relates to the social cognition aspect as well due to the ability of music to activate the area of our brains that seeks to understand what the musicians' intention behind their words or sounds is. This indicates that music therapy could be especially effective on individuals who are nonverbal, as it allows them to communicate without the use of traditional language, opening up a whole new world of possibilities.  
    Overall, while there is not much data on the lasting effects of music therapy on a neurological level in individuals, the limited positive effects these scientists have seen will prompt a more in-depth look at the impact of music on a neuronal level. This study shows that just listening to music can positively affect someone’s quality of life. Both this fact and Dr. Dye’s findings regarding the impacts of playing music on individuals' cognitive and psychological development show that music is an integral part of human existence and can be utilized to improve our cognitive ability and quality of life. 
 
References:

Koelsch, S. (2009). A Neuroscientific Perspective on Music Therapy. Annals of the New York  

    Academy of Sciences, 1169(1), 374-384. 

Benefits of Playing an Instrument, Not Just for Adolescents

    After being enamored by Dr. Toby Dye’s talk on playing an instrument on the brain. I found myself reflecting on my own journey as a youth clarinet player. I was forced to by the school for a couple of years, and never knew why. Now, looking back on the experience, I am more than happy to have been forced to play such an interesting instrument. Dr Dye’s talk walked us through recent and new experimentation done on those who played and played a musical instrument, and how their specific brain functions are more in tune and well-developed than their same-age non-musical instrument-playing counterparts. It was fascinating to me; how not only taking in the musical melody, but being able to recite it from memory, and associate each note with a muscular movement. The whole process of playing an instrument, when you break it down, piece by piece, is truly a wonder. 

    Recently further research has been conducted on the topic of physiological and psychological effects of playing a musical instrument. Here, they have been exploring “The relationship between playing musical instruments and cognitive trajectories: Analysis from a UK aging cohort” These scientists conducted online surveys from participants age forty and above to evaluate their neural health and functionality. Participants were invited to complete the validated Edinburgh Lifetime Musical Experience Questionnaire (ELMEQ) to assess their musical experience and lifetime exposure to music. The team reviewed participants' musical experience and lifetime exposure to music, alongside results of cognitive testing, to determine whether musicality helps to keep the brain sharp in later life. The findings show that playing a musical instrument, particularly the piano, is linked to improved memory and the ability to solve complex tasks -- known as executive function. Continuing to play into later life provides even greater benefits.

    This specific example counteracts our preconceived notions of getting kids started early on the violin or the saxophone. Of course, it is better to start them early, but that is not to say you cannot start later in life and still experience the benefits of playing a musical instrument. Overall, we must continue encouraging kids and our youth to engage in an orchestra or a band. Furthermore, we must not judge those adults who are merely trying something new as they get older, there is always room for change. 

References: 

Vetere G, Williams G, Ballard C, Creese B, Hampshire A, Palmer A, Pickering E, Richards M, Brooker H, Corbett A. The relationship between playing musical instruments and cognitive trajectories: Analysis from a UK ageing cohort. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2024 Feb;39(2):e6061. doi: 10.1002/gps.6061. PMID: 38281509.

The Role of the Cerebellum in Alzheimer's Disease: More Than Just a Bystander?

               In their article titled "Cerebellar EEG source localization reveals age-related compensatory activity moderated by genetic risk for Alzheimer's disease", Elizabeth R. Paitel and Kristy A. Nielson study the genetic risks that come with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Through an EEG study of cerebellar activity, Paitel and her associate concluded that those with a predisposition to AD (specifically older individuals in this paper specifically) demonstrate increased cerebellar activity. This research raises an important question to understand: Is cerebellar activity a cause of AD? Or is it merely a symptom?

            The role of cerebellar activity in the development of neurodegenerative diseases is still widely unknown. As noted by Paitel in her paper, the cerebellum is implicated to have a role in many other neurological diseases, such as Huntington’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Beyond these correlations, the causes and effects of cerebellar dysfunction are widely unknown.

            In a paper published to the Oxford Academic, titled “The cerebellum in Alzheimer’s disease: evaluating its role in cognitive decline”, various researchers seek to understand the role of the cerebellum in AD beyond just a correlation. This is done through review of various other scientifically published papers that study various parameters of AD. They note many microscopic and macroscopic findings. A microscopic finding noted to be important in the study is the indication that frequent depositing of b-amyloid in the cerebellum is frequently noted in the discovery of early-onset AD. An example of a macroscopic finding would be that the cerebellums of those with early-onset AD are often lighter than those without AD. Through the analysis of such studies, the authors conclude that the cerebellum is ”more than a silent bystander in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease”. Also noted is that more research must be done into the pathology of AD in the cerebellum, as even still, so little is understood about the connection demonstrated here. Despite this, current findings indicate that the cerebellum may have a more prevalent role in the development of AD than once thought.

References

1. 2. Heidi I L Jacobs, David A Hopkins, Helen C Mayrhofer, Emiliano Bruner, Fred W van Leeuwen, Wijnand Raaijmakers, Jeremy D Schmahmann, The cerebellum in Alzheimer’s disease: evaluating its role in cognitive decline, Brain, Volume 141, Issue 1, January 2018, Pages 37–47, https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awx194

2. Paitel ER, Nielson KA. Cerebellar EEG source localization reveals age-related compensatory activity moderated by genetic risk for Alzheimer's disease. Psychophysiology. 2023 Dec;60(12):e14395. doi: 10.1111/psyp.14395. Epub 2023 Jul 26. PMID: 37493042; PMCID: PMC10720653.

Journaling, Positive Emotions, and Depressive Symptoms

             Depression and depressive symptoms have been on a constant rise over the last few years, with COVID-19 drastically increasing the prevalence of depression (World Health Organization); there is a clear need to develop effective and safe treatments for depression. However, due to the complexity of depression and the variety of ways it can develop, depression is a very difficult mental illness to treat. Most current methods of depression treatment focus on limiting the effects of negative emotions and their psychological impact. Some researchers, such as Dr. Rebecca Silton, believes the traditional methods for treating depression are limited in their scope, and are actively trying to change how we go about treating depression. Dr. Silton believes that we should be treating depression not through decreasing negative emotions, but through increasing the experience of positive emotions. Dr. Silton believes that techniques such as savoring and mindfulness have the potential to be more effective at treating depression than current methods (Silton, 2020).

            Savoring, a term coined by Dr. Fred Bryant, is all about enjoying the moment and relishing past/future positive experiences. Mindfulness Meditation is known to help increase the capacity for experiencing positive emotions through directing attention towards the positive aspects of life and increasing the overall awareness of oneself (Silton, 2020). Dr. Silton and her colleagues argue that savoring and Mindfulness Meditation may be an effective method to encourage reflection on positive emotions in those with depression and have the potential to help combat the symptoms of depression (Silton, 2020).

While Savoring and Mindfulness Meditation may be similar, they are two distinct ways to increase positive emotions. Savoring focuses on relishing the experience of positive emotions, while Mindfulness Meditation focuses on reflecting on one's overall wellbeing. The few studies on these topics have shown that those who engage in these types of techniques have demonstrated an overall increased feeling of happiness and a decrease in depressive symptoms (Silton, 2020). Both of these methods have the potential to decrease the prevalence of depressive symptoms, however, further research still needs to be conducted to understand the full effects of these techniques.

            While Mindfulness Meditation has a clear method through which it can be achieved (meditating), there are a multitude of ways to engage in savoring. One method of savoring that really stood out to me as I was reviewing Dr. Silton’s research, and related articles was journaling. Journaling is a form of writing that involves jotting down your thoughts and feelings on a daily basis. The reasons for why people journal varies, some journal simply to create a record of their life, while some journal to process their emotions. Dr. Sarah Allen, a researcher at the University of York, wanted to understand how techniques such as journaling can help people process their emotions and reduce their depressive symptoms. To explore her theory, Dr. Sarah Allen and her colleagues investigated how writing about positive life experiences on a daily basis can help reduce depressive symptoms in a formal study. For this aspect of their study, they recruited participants that were socially inhibited and experiencing symptoms of depression (Allen, 2020). The reason they focused on socially inhibited individuals is because these individuals are unable to engage in typical depression treatments, such as therapy. Someone who is socially inhibited does not enjoy interacting with others, so typical treatment methods of depression symptoms like talk therapy are inaccessible to them (Allen, 2020). However, positive writing/journaling is something one can do all on their own and involves no social interaction. Therapy is also quite expensive and can be inaccessible for those who are low income or don’t have good insurance. Journaling presents itself as a potential affordable and accessible way to combat depressive symptoms.

            In the end, Dr. Allen’s study found that journaling about positive experiences for only a couple of days decreased depressive symptoms for their socially inhibited participants. To achieve these results, they compared how participants reacted to writing about a positive topic versus a neutral topic (Allen, 2020). Their results demonstrate that positive journaling has the potential to help those with depression combat their symptoms and gives an example of a tool that researchers such as Dr. Silton can use to help treat those with depression through positive emotion regulation.

 

References

Allen, S. F., Wetherell, M. A., & Smith, M. A. (2020). Online writing about positive life experiences reduces depression and perceived stress reactivity in socially inhibited individuals. Psychiatry Research, 284, 112697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112697‌

 

Silton, R. L., Kahrilas, I. J., Skymba, H. V., Smith, J., Bryant, F. B., & Heller, W. (2020). Regulating positive emotions: Implications for promoting well-being in individuals with depression. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 20(1), 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000675

 

World Health Organization. (2022, March 2). COVID-19 pandemic triggers 25% increase in prevalence of anxiety and depression worldwide. Www.who.int. https://www.who.int/news/item/02-03-2022-covid-19-pandemic-triggers-25-increase-in-prevalence-of-anxiety-and-depression-worldwide#:~:text=In%20the%20first%20year%20of

 

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Mental Wellbeing and Exercise

 There are many factors that can inspire us to live life to the fullest when it comes to our mental well-being. An interesting article titled "Exercise Boosts the Brain and Mental Health" by Bob Holmes sheds light on how exercise can have a positive impact on our mental state. 

Researchers have made progress in understanding the mechanisms through which exercise works the mind. They have discovered that exercise has profound effects on the structure of the brain, particularly in areas that are most affected by depression and schizophrenia. Even engaging in modest levels of physical activity, like taking a daily walk, can have significant benefits for mental health. When we exercise, a protein called brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is released, which helps in the growth of new brain cells, especially in the hippocampus. For those dealing with mental health issues, any form of physical activity can be beneficial as it helps divert their attention and prevents them from focusing too much on their condition. People with mental illness often struggle with motivation, making it difficult for them to incorporate exercise into their routine. Engaging in regular physical activity has a significant impact on our mental well-being. Exercise has the ability to clear our minds and reduce stress, allowing us to concentrate better. When we exercise, our bodies release endorphins, which are natural mood boosters. This can lead to improved mental clarity, increased productivity, and a sharper mental state. Exercise reduces symptoms of anxiety and depression, as it provides a healthy way to cope with stress and regulate our emotions. In addition to the mental benefits, this physical activity has a positive impact on our physical well-being. 

Engaging in regular exercise can boost our heart health, strengthen our muscles and bones, and even increase our overall lifespan. By incorporating physical activities into our daily lives, we not only boost our self-confidence and mental state but also enhance our physical health and overall quality of life. Exercise serves as a way to prioritize our own well-being. It allows us to disconnect focus on taking care of our bodily health and aids in strengthening our mental health. 

References

Holmes, B. (n.d.). Exercise boosts the brain — and mental health. https://www.brainfacts.org/diseases-and-disorders/mental-health/2022/exercise-boosts-the-brain-and-mental-health-042622

MRI-Guided TMS Reduces Depressive Symptoms

            Depression is something many young adults know all too well; according to the CDC, 21.5% of adults ages 18 to 24 have depression. Despite this staggering number, there is hope to be found in recent research that continues to discover non-invasive techniques for treating depressive symptoms. One of these techniques is known as savoring, which can be defined as the capacity “to attend, to appreciate, and enhance the positive experiences in one’s life” (Silton). Such a technique has been found in various studies to increase positive affect and decrease negative affect among those who are depressed.

Other studies have provided hope in reducing depressive symptoms among individuals using transcranial magnetic stimulation. Commonly known as TMS, it involves the usage of a coil to produce small magnetic pulses in the brain. According to the article “TMS Proves Long-Term Relief for Depression,” a new clinical trial that was tested in five centers across England found that the usage of TMS along with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and neuronavigation led to significantly improved depression and anxiety symptoms in individuals with treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Those with TRD have been treated with antidepressants and therapy but unfortunately have not improved in their symptoms. 

Unlike previous studies using TMS to treat depression, MRIs were used to personalize the site of stimulation to ensure the pulse was focused on the relevant area causing depressive symptoms in the subject. Additionally, neuronavigation -- a computerized tracking system that uses light to deliver the TMS -- precisely targeted the area of simulation to ensure it remained the same in subjects during all twenty treatment sessions.

It seems this modified method of application of TMS was very successful compared to previous studies since previous ones using TMS to treat depression showed improvements lasting only one to three months. This study, on the other hand, showed improvement of symptoms for up to six months in individuals. Over two-thirds of participants showed a response to this treatment and one-third showed up to a 50% improvement in their symptoms. Amazingly, 20% of participants achieved sustained remission following the study. 

The results of this study are groundbreaking for those with depression, and more specifically, those with TRD. If this kind of TMS usage is effective in reducing depression for up to six months in individuals, those with TRD would only need to do the treatment about twice a year to remain mentally well and free from depressive symptoms. Since TMS is non-invasive and has relatively minor side effects, it seems like it is becoming more and more of a promising avenue for those with depression.

 

Resources

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023, June 15). National, state-level, and county-level prevalence estimates of adults aged ≥18 years self-reporting a lifetime diagnosis of Depression - United States, 2020. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7224a1.htm#:~:text=Age%2Dspecific%20prevalence%20of%20depression,≥65%20years%20(14.2%25). 

Neuroscience News. (2024, January 16). TMS proves long-term relief for Depression. https://neurosciencenews.com/tms-depression-25469/ 

Silton, R. L., Kahrilas, I. J., Skymba, H. V., Smith, J., Bryant, F. B., & Heller, W. (2020). Regulating positive emotions: Implications for promoting well-being in individuals with depression. Emotion, 20(1), 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000675 

Exploring the importance of apolipoprotein-E in Alzheimer’s disease

There are an estimated 6.7 million individuals that suffer from Alzheimer's disease throughout the United States. With the high numbers of people suffering from Alzheimer's disease, one must become aware of the causes behind Alzheimer’s and some ways in which they treat Alzheimer’s. Alzheimer’s can be characterized by cognitive decline, behavioral and psychiatric disorders, and declines in functional status. Some symptoms of Alzheimer’s include memory starting to decline and other functions, like language skills and decision-making, becoming more difficult. Eventually, an individual who survives with Alzheimer’s becomes completely reliant on others for assistance with the most basic everyday activities. Alzheimer’s and aging occur in the frontal lobe regions of the brain which selectively communicate with areas of the prefrontal, parietal, cingulate, and parahippocampal cortices which are involved in complex higher-order cognitive processes. With advancing age, inheriting the apolipoprotein-E allele is the greatest risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease since the allele is associated with up to twelve times greater Alzheimer's risk. 

Moreover, in Dr. Paitel’s talk, she explains her experiment on using EEG localization to characterize both contributions of aging and apolipoprotein-E allele (E4) on activity in cognitive regions of the cerebellum during the P300 window of successful inhibitory control. What she found was that patterns in the relatively old E4+ sample were consistent with depletion of cerebellar resources which suggests that the posterolateral cerebellum may be impacted early in healthy elders with genetic risk for Alzheimer’s. In another article titled “Relationship between the Presence of the ApoE ε4 Allele and EEG Complexity along the Alzheimer’s Disease Continuum”, Carlos Gomez and his colleagues discovered the role of the E4 allele through EEG localization as well which compares to Dr. Paitel’s experiment in a variety of ways. 

One way in which both experiments compare to each other is through the use of EEG localizations to better understand the role of the apolipoprotein-E allele in Alzheimer’s disease. In Gomez’s experiment, he found that the ApoE𝜀4 allele may be associated with cognitive disturbances even before the manifestation of AD symptoms. The way in which Gomez’s experiment compares is through the results of the connection between the E4 allele and motor function. In Paitel’s experiment, she found the E4 allele affecting motor function as well which reflects a connection between the two experiments. The reason why the E4 allele is so important is due to the E4 allele having a direct impact on cholinergic function and the cholinergic deficit might be more severe in AD patients carrying the E4 allele. Thus, both experiments discovered how the E4 allele is one of the leading factors for the symptoms that develop for Alzheimer's disease.

    In addition to the E4 allele affecting motor function, Gomez also discovered the association between the E4 alleles and EEG complexity. Gomez found that there were statistically significant differences between non-carrier and carrier HC subjects in the left temporal, frontal, and posterior regions. Also, Gomez found that the left enthorinal region was significantly thinner in E4 carriers than in non-carriers which contributes to an increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s potentially identifiable since childhood. The way in which Gomez’s findings connect with Paitel’s is by both of them discovering the location where Alzheimer's disease affects individuals the most. Both found that the temporal, frontal lobe is more affected than any other regions of the brain which suggests the similarity between the two experiments. 

With Alzheimer's disease rapidly increasing throughout the United States, it is important to recognize and bring awareness to ways in which Alzheimer’s can be treated. Since both Paitel and Gomez discovered the role of the E4 allele for individuals suffering from Alzheimer’s, one can become aware of how impactful the allele truly is. Therefore, the apolipoprotein-E allele is one of the most important alleles that affects Alzheimer’s significantly. 

References:

Gutiérrez-de Pablo V, Gómez C, Poza J, Maturana-Candelas A, Martins S, Gomes I, Lopes AM, Pinto N, Hornero R. Relationship between the Presence of the ApoE ε4 Allele and EEG Complexity along the Alzheimer’s Disease Continuum. Sensors. 2020; 20(14):3849. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20143849

Benefits of the Bilingual Brain

    Captivated by Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim presentation on her paper titled “The Multifaceted Nature of Bilingualism and Attention”, I set out to explore the latest novelties on bilingualism within neuroscience. The author delves into several different forms of attention and specifically examines the impact of bilingualism on each of these facets. Her research studies the link between attention and bilingualism in both their complexities. Research continues to unravel the intricacies of the bilingual brain to bring further understanding of the impact of bilingualism.

    Previous research has demonstrated that, in comparison to monolinguals, bilingual individuals exhibit better cognitive control. Applying this to older adults, Gigi Luk and associates investigated the hypothesis that bilingualism is correlated with the maintenance of white matter, which typically declines with age. Their findings successfully revealed higher white matter integrity in bilingual adults compared to their monolingual counterparts. They linked these connections to more widely distributed patterns of functional connectivity in bilinguals, underscoring the importance of white matter integrity and the pronounced impact of bilingualism.

    In contrast, Lorna García-Pentón endeavors to highlight the challenges in studying the relationship between bilingualism and brain structure. She attributes highly variable data to issues related to sample size and methodological approach, cautioning against making broad generalizations without consistent evidence. Comparatively to the ideas Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim touched on, how individuals self-identify as bilingual poses a critical question. Before a study can begin, researchers must find a suitable group of bilinguals, but the wide spectrum of language proficiency can pose as a threat to obtaining reliable results.

    The intricacies of bilingualism present substantial challenges in correlating it with the complexities of the brain. While efforts have been made to establish definitive conclusions, further research remains imperative. This evolving field of neuroscience promises fascinating knowledge to the ideas of bilingualism related to brain structure and function, with much yet to be uncovered.

References:

García-Pentón, L., Fernández García, Y., Costello, B., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Carreiras, M. (2017). The neuroanatomy of bilingualism: how to turn a hazy view into the full picture. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 31(3), 303–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2015.1068944

Gigi Luk, Ellen Bialystok, Fergus I. M. Craik, and Cheryl L. Grady. “Lifelong Bilingualism Maintains White Matter Integrity in Older Adults.” The Journal of Neuroscience 31, no. 46 (November 16, 2011): 16808. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4563-11.2011.

The Effects of Music Education on Children and Older Adults

The Effects of Music Education on Children and Older Adults

Music education has long been proven to be an effective tool for cognitive function, but what are the different arguments that back up this notion? How can we use these findings in children and apply them to our ever-growing aged population? 

In their article “The Argument for Music Education”, Nina Kraus and Travis White-Schwoch outline three arguments in favor of music education in early childhood: the indirect argument, the incentive argument, and the intangible argument. The indirect argument follows the notion that children who participate in musical activities have higher cognitive functioning which can boost their performance in school. Kraus and White-Schwoch (2020) found that musicians of all ages can quickly and more accurately encode speech sounds in noisy environments compared to non-musicians. This allows students with music training to better pick up on information from teachers even in chaotic learning environments, leading to high success rates. The incentive argument follows after the indirect argument, in that high rates of academic success lead to higher graduation rates in those who studied music as a child. The argument goes if children see that putting effort into their schoolwork pays off, it will incentivize them to continue working hard and eventually graduate, as seen in the graduation rates of students in the Harmony Project. While the indirect argument and the incentive argument base their findings on metrics, the intangible argument is cited to be the most profound benefit of musical education as it proposes that participation in music leads to better emotional regulation, overall well-being, and higher rates of optimism. Beatriz Ilari and Eun Cho (2023) ran a study to find positive youth development in students who participated in music-based extracurriculars and found that students who started music education at a young age were more optimistic about the future and scored higher in school connectedness. This argument shows the interconnectedness of cognitive function and the self, both of which lead to the development of a holistic individual. 

While most research has looked into the benefits of musical training in children, it would be amiss not to mention similar findings in cognitive function in older adults. With a rapidly aging population, it is important that we impose interventions that prevent the onset of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and dementia. Abrahan et al. (2019) aimed to investigate the effect of a focal activity to improve memory performance in older adults and find whether there was a difference in memory between musically trained and untrained adults using musical improvisation. Their study showed a significant improvement in memory among individuals who participated in musical improvisation and that musicians had overall better visual memory than non-musicians, suggesting that musical activity is a good intervention for memory enhancement. Similar results have also been found in adults already affected by cognitive decline. Definitive medicines and therapies to treat this decline are hard to find, so researchers have suggested that mind-body interventions such as meditation and music listening can have many benefits (Innes et al., 2017). Studies have shown that in adults showing early signs of cognitive decline, three months of music therapy had improved performance in attention, processing speed, and executive function, as well as an overall increase in their quality of life. 

Overall, musical training at any age has amazing benefits, both cognitively and in one’s outlook and quality of life. However, it is important to note that further research is needed in populations where musical training is either discouraged or unavailable. Music teachers are not only more likely to be white, but their students are more likely to come from privileged groups in terms of race and socioeconomic background (Ethan, 2021). Understanding the disparities in access to musical training will allow for the development of initiatives that will enhance learning outcomes and overall well-being in marginalized populations.

References

Abrahan, V. D., Shifres, F., & Justel, N. (2019). Cognitive benefits from a musical activity in older adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00652

Ethan. (2021, September 5). The racial politics of music education. The Ethan Hein Blog. https://www.ethanhein.com/wp/2020/the-racial-politics-of-music-education/

Ilari, B., & Cho, E. (2023). Musical participation and positive youth development in middle school. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1056542

Innes, K. E., Selfe, T., Khalsa, D. S., & Kandati, S. (2017). Meditation and Music Improve Memory and Cognitive Function in Adults with Subjective Cognitive Decline: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 56(3), 899–916. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-160867

Music Affecting Cognitive Abilities

Music Affecting Cognitive Abilities

     Music can improve memory recall and elicit emotional responses. Music can activate the limbic system which is responsible for strong feelings. According to a recent study, researchers found that thirty percent of the songs presented to the participants made them evoke their autobiographical memories. Positive emotions such as nostalgia and happiness were prompted. Music also allowed them to have higher arousal levels which became a memory enhancer for the participants. Therefore, since music affects mood and arousal, it causes a stronger association between memories and emotions.

     Music is also involved in multiple cognitive functions such as memory encoding, attention, flexibility, and speech processing. It engages various areas of the brain and establishes strong connections between them. Music creates a myriad of brain pathways and networks and allows for stronger memories. Studies have shown that musicians often have a stronger ability to remember, recall, and hear. Musicians tend to show a better verbal working memory than the average human. This is due to the process of learning music can improve the learning of verbal tasks. Another study showed that music allows for better recovery of verbal memory and attention. The speed and tempo of the music can improve the speed at which information like speech and auditory information are processed. As a result, it improves attention and ability to recall. 

     Introducing musical experiences early in life equates to lifelong neuroplasticity. Therefore, processes like learning and memory recall can come faster to those who have played instruments at a young age. Other studies have shown that music education from an early age can impact brain development and boost cognitive function. Children who are introduced to music can have an easier time with language and learning in academic settings. Various tempos and pitches can help the brain develop networks regarding language. Hence, speech and literacy will both increase in children. Having music education facilitated in schools can be beneficial for children and their cognitive abilities. It can improve attention spans, which in turn, can help children struggling with attention deficit disorders.   

References

Dumont, Elisabeth, et al. “Music Interventions and Child Development: A Critical Review and Further Directions.” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 8, no. 1694, 29 Sept. 2017, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5626863/, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01694.

Jäncke, Lutz. “Music, Memory and Emotion.” Journal of Biology, vol. 7, no. 6, 8 Aug. 2008, p. 21, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776393/, https://doi.org/10.1186/jbiol82.

Kraus, Nina, and Travis White-Schwoch. “The Argument for Music Education.” American Scientist, 3 June 2020, www.americanscientist.org/article/the-argument-for-music-education.

Toader, Corneliu, et al. “Cognitive Crescendo: How Music Shapes the Brain’s Structure and Function.” Brain Sciences, vol. 13, no. 10, 1 Oct. 2023, p. 1390, www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/13/10/1390, https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13101390.