Mental Wellbeing and Exercise

 There are many factors that can inspire us to live life to the fullest when it comes to our mental well-being. An interesting article titled "Exercise Boosts the Brain and Mental Health" by Bob Holmes sheds light on how exercise can have a positive impact on our mental state. 

Researchers have made progress in understanding the mechanisms through which exercise works the mind. They have discovered that exercise has profound effects on the structure of the brain, particularly in areas that are most affected by depression and schizophrenia. Even engaging in modest levels of physical activity, like taking a daily walk, can have significant benefits for mental health. When we exercise, a protein called brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is released, which helps in the growth of new brain cells, especially in the hippocampus. For those dealing with mental health issues, any form of physical activity can be beneficial as it helps divert their attention and prevents them from focusing too much on their condition. People with mental illness often struggle with motivation, making it difficult for them to incorporate exercise into their routine. Engaging in regular physical activity has a significant impact on our mental well-being. Exercise has the ability to clear our minds and reduce stress, allowing us to concentrate better. When we exercise, our bodies release endorphins, which are natural mood boosters. This can lead to improved mental clarity, increased productivity, and a sharper mental state. Exercise reduces symptoms of anxiety and depression, as it provides a healthy way to cope with stress and regulate our emotions. In addition to the mental benefits, this physical activity has a positive impact on our physical well-being. 

Engaging in regular exercise can boost our heart health, strengthen our muscles and bones, and even increase our overall lifespan. By incorporating physical activities into our daily lives, we not only boost our self-confidence and mental state but also enhance our physical health and overall quality of life. Exercise serves as a way to prioritize our own well-being. It allows us to disconnect focus on taking care of our bodily health and aids in strengthening our mental health. 

References

Holmes, B. (n.d.). Exercise boosts the brain — and mental health. https://www.brainfacts.org/diseases-and-disorders/mental-health/2022/exercise-boosts-the-brain-and-mental-health-042622

MRI-Guided TMS Reduces Depressive Symptoms

            Depression is something many young adults know all too well; according to the CDC, 21.5% of adults ages 18 to 24 have depression. Despite this staggering number, there is hope to be found in recent research that continues to discover non-invasive techniques for treating depressive symptoms. One of these techniques is known as savoring, which can be defined as the capacity “to attend, to appreciate, and enhance the positive experiences in one’s life” (Silton). Such a technique has been found in various studies to increase positive affect and decrease negative affect among those who are depressed.

Other studies have provided hope in reducing depressive symptoms among individuals using transcranial magnetic stimulation. Commonly known as TMS, it involves the usage of a coil to produce small magnetic pulses in the brain. According to the article “TMS Proves Long-Term Relief for Depression,” a new clinical trial that was tested in five centers across England found that the usage of TMS along with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and neuronavigation led to significantly improved depression and anxiety symptoms in individuals with treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Those with TRD have been treated with antidepressants and therapy but unfortunately have not improved in their symptoms. 

Unlike previous studies using TMS to treat depression, MRIs were used to personalize the site of stimulation to ensure the pulse was focused on the relevant area causing depressive symptoms in the subject. Additionally, neuronavigation -- a computerized tracking system that uses light to deliver the TMS -- precisely targeted the area of simulation to ensure it remained the same in subjects during all twenty treatment sessions.

It seems this modified method of application of TMS was very successful compared to previous studies since previous ones using TMS to treat depression showed improvements lasting only one to three months. This study, on the other hand, showed improvement of symptoms for up to six months in individuals. Over two-thirds of participants showed a response to this treatment and one-third showed up to a 50% improvement in their symptoms. Amazingly, 20% of participants achieved sustained remission following the study. 

The results of this study are groundbreaking for those with depression, and more specifically, those with TRD. If this kind of TMS usage is effective in reducing depression for up to six months in individuals, those with TRD would only need to do the treatment about twice a year to remain mentally well and free from depressive symptoms. Since TMS is non-invasive and has relatively minor side effects, it seems like it is becoming more and more of a promising avenue for those with depression.

 

Resources

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023, June 15). National, state-level, and county-level prevalence estimates of adults aged ≥18 years self-reporting a lifetime diagnosis of Depression - United States, 2020. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7224a1.htm#:~:text=Age%2Dspecific%20prevalence%20of%20depression,≥65%20years%20(14.2%25). 

Neuroscience News. (2024, January 16). TMS proves long-term relief for Depression. https://neurosciencenews.com/tms-depression-25469/ 

Silton, R. L., Kahrilas, I. J., Skymba, H. V., Smith, J., Bryant, F. B., & Heller, W. (2020). Regulating positive emotions: Implications for promoting well-being in individuals with depression. Emotion, 20(1), 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000675 

Exploring the importance of apolipoprotein-E in Alzheimer’s disease

There are an estimated 6.7 million individuals that suffer from Alzheimer's disease throughout the United States. With the high numbers of people suffering from Alzheimer's disease, one must become aware of the causes behind Alzheimer’s and some ways in which they treat Alzheimer’s. Alzheimer’s can be characterized by cognitive decline, behavioral and psychiatric disorders, and declines in functional status. Some symptoms of Alzheimer’s include memory starting to decline and other functions, like language skills and decision-making, becoming more difficult. Eventually, an individual who survives with Alzheimer’s becomes completely reliant on others for assistance with the most basic everyday activities. Alzheimer’s and aging occur in the frontal lobe regions of the brain which selectively communicate with areas of the prefrontal, parietal, cingulate, and parahippocampal cortices which are involved in complex higher-order cognitive processes. With advancing age, inheriting the apolipoprotein-E allele is the greatest risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease since the allele is associated with up to twelve times greater Alzheimer's risk. 

Moreover, in Dr. Paitel’s talk, she explains her experiment on using EEG localization to characterize both contributions of aging and apolipoprotein-E allele (E4) on activity in cognitive regions of the cerebellum during the P300 window of successful inhibitory control. What she found was that patterns in the relatively old E4+ sample were consistent with depletion of cerebellar resources which suggests that the posterolateral cerebellum may be impacted early in healthy elders with genetic risk for Alzheimer’s. In another article titled “Relationship between the Presence of the ApoE ε4 Allele and EEG Complexity along the Alzheimer’s Disease Continuum”, Carlos Gomez and his colleagues discovered the role of the E4 allele through EEG localization as well which compares to Dr. Paitel’s experiment in a variety of ways. 

One way in which both experiments compare to each other is through the use of EEG localizations to better understand the role of the apolipoprotein-E allele in Alzheimer’s disease. In Gomez’s experiment, he found that the ApoE𝜀4 allele may be associated with cognitive disturbances even before the manifestation of AD symptoms. The way in which Gomez’s experiment compares is through the results of the connection between the E4 allele and motor function. In Paitel’s experiment, she found the E4 allele affecting motor function as well which reflects a connection between the two experiments. The reason why the E4 allele is so important is due to the E4 allele having a direct impact on cholinergic function and the cholinergic deficit might be more severe in AD patients carrying the E4 allele. Thus, both experiments discovered how the E4 allele is one of the leading factors for the symptoms that develop for Alzheimer's disease.

    In addition to the E4 allele affecting motor function, Gomez also discovered the association between the E4 alleles and EEG complexity. Gomez found that there were statistically significant differences between non-carrier and carrier HC subjects in the left temporal, frontal, and posterior regions. Also, Gomez found that the left enthorinal region was significantly thinner in E4 carriers than in non-carriers which contributes to an increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s potentially identifiable since childhood. The way in which Gomez’s findings connect with Paitel’s is by both of them discovering the location where Alzheimer's disease affects individuals the most. Both found that the temporal, frontal lobe is more affected than any other regions of the brain which suggests the similarity between the two experiments. 

With Alzheimer's disease rapidly increasing throughout the United States, it is important to recognize and bring awareness to ways in which Alzheimer’s can be treated. Since both Paitel and Gomez discovered the role of the E4 allele for individuals suffering from Alzheimer’s, one can become aware of how impactful the allele truly is. Therefore, the apolipoprotein-E allele is one of the most important alleles that affects Alzheimer’s significantly. 

References:

Gutiérrez-de Pablo V, Gómez C, Poza J, Maturana-Candelas A, Martins S, Gomes I, Lopes AM, Pinto N, Hornero R. Relationship between the Presence of the ApoE ε4 Allele and EEG Complexity along the Alzheimer’s Disease Continuum. Sensors. 2020; 20(14):3849. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20143849

Benefits of the Bilingual Brain

    Captivated by Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim presentation on her paper titled “The Multifaceted Nature of Bilingualism and Attention”, I set out to explore the latest novelties on bilingualism within neuroscience. The author delves into several different forms of attention and specifically examines the impact of bilingualism on each of these facets. Her research studies the link between attention and bilingualism in both their complexities. Research continues to unravel the intricacies of the bilingual brain to bring further understanding of the impact of bilingualism.

    Previous research has demonstrated that, in comparison to monolinguals, bilingual individuals exhibit better cognitive control. Applying this to older adults, Gigi Luk and associates investigated the hypothesis that bilingualism is correlated with the maintenance of white matter, which typically declines with age. Their findings successfully revealed higher white matter integrity in bilingual adults compared to their monolingual counterparts. They linked these connections to more widely distributed patterns of functional connectivity in bilinguals, underscoring the importance of white matter integrity and the pronounced impact of bilingualism.

    In contrast, Lorna García-Pentón endeavors to highlight the challenges in studying the relationship between bilingualism and brain structure. She attributes highly variable data to issues related to sample size and methodological approach, cautioning against making broad generalizations without consistent evidence. Comparatively to the ideas Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim touched on, how individuals self-identify as bilingual poses a critical question. Before a study can begin, researchers must find a suitable group of bilinguals, but the wide spectrum of language proficiency can pose as a threat to obtaining reliable results.

    The intricacies of bilingualism present substantial challenges in correlating it with the complexities of the brain. While efforts have been made to establish definitive conclusions, further research remains imperative. This evolving field of neuroscience promises fascinating knowledge to the ideas of bilingualism related to brain structure and function, with much yet to be uncovered.

References:

García-Pentón, L., Fernández García, Y., Costello, B., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Carreiras, M. (2017). The neuroanatomy of bilingualism: how to turn a hazy view into the full picture. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 31(3), 303–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2015.1068944

Gigi Luk, Ellen Bialystok, Fergus I. M. Craik, and Cheryl L. Grady. “Lifelong Bilingualism Maintains White Matter Integrity in Older Adults.” The Journal of Neuroscience 31, no. 46 (November 16, 2011): 16808. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4563-11.2011.

The Effects of Music Education on Children and Older Adults

The Effects of Music Education on Children and Older Adults

Music education has long been proven to be an effective tool for cognitive function, but what are the different arguments that back up this notion? How can we use these findings in children and apply them to our ever-growing aged population? 

In their article “The Argument for Music Education”, Nina Kraus and Travis White-Schwoch outline three arguments in favor of music education in early childhood: the indirect argument, the incentive argument, and the intangible argument. The indirect argument follows the notion that children who participate in musical activities have higher cognitive functioning which can boost their performance in school. Kraus and White-Schwoch (2020) found that musicians of all ages can quickly and more accurately encode speech sounds in noisy environments compared to non-musicians. This allows students with music training to better pick up on information from teachers even in chaotic learning environments, leading to high success rates. The incentive argument follows after the indirect argument, in that high rates of academic success lead to higher graduation rates in those who studied music as a child. The argument goes if children see that putting effort into their schoolwork pays off, it will incentivize them to continue working hard and eventually graduate, as seen in the graduation rates of students in the Harmony Project. While the indirect argument and the incentive argument base their findings on metrics, the intangible argument is cited to be the most profound benefit of musical education as it proposes that participation in music leads to better emotional regulation, overall well-being, and higher rates of optimism. Beatriz Ilari and Eun Cho (2023) ran a study to find positive youth development in students who participated in music-based extracurriculars and found that students who started music education at a young age were more optimistic about the future and scored higher in school connectedness. This argument shows the interconnectedness of cognitive function and the self, both of which lead to the development of a holistic individual. 

While most research has looked into the benefits of musical training in children, it would be amiss not to mention similar findings in cognitive function in older adults. With a rapidly aging population, it is important that we impose interventions that prevent the onset of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and dementia. Abrahan et al. (2019) aimed to investigate the effect of a focal activity to improve memory performance in older adults and find whether there was a difference in memory between musically trained and untrained adults using musical improvisation. Their study showed a significant improvement in memory among individuals who participated in musical improvisation and that musicians had overall better visual memory than non-musicians, suggesting that musical activity is a good intervention for memory enhancement. Similar results have also been found in adults already affected by cognitive decline. Definitive medicines and therapies to treat this decline are hard to find, so researchers have suggested that mind-body interventions such as meditation and music listening can have many benefits (Innes et al., 2017). Studies have shown that in adults showing early signs of cognitive decline, three months of music therapy had improved performance in attention, processing speed, and executive function, as well as an overall increase in their quality of life. 

Overall, musical training at any age has amazing benefits, both cognitively and in one’s outlook and quality of life. However, it is important to note that further research is needed in populations where musical training is either discouraged or unavailable. Music teachers are not only more likely to be white, but their students are more likely to come from privileged groups in terms of race and socioeconomic background (Ethan, 2021). Understanding the disparities in access to musical training will allow for the development of initiatives that will enhance learning outcomes and overall well-being in marginalized populations.

References

Abrahan, V. D., Shifres, F., & Justel, N. (2019). Cognitive benefits from a musical activity in older adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00652

Ethan. (2021, September 5). The racial politics of music education. The Ethan Hein Blog. https://www.ethanhein.com/wp/2020/the-racial-politics-of-music-education/

Ilari, B., & Cho, E. (2023). Musical participation and positive youth development in middle school. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1056542

Innes, K. E., Selfe, T., Khalsa, D. S., & Kandati, S. (2017). Meditation and Music Improve Memory and Cognitive Function in Adults with Subjective Cognitive Decline: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 56(3), 899–916. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-160867

Music Affecting Cognitive Abilities

Music Affecting Cognitive Abilities

     Music can improve memory recall and elicit emotional responses. Music can activate the limbic system which is responsible for strong feelings. According to a recent study, researchers found that thirty percent of the songs presented to the participants made them evoke their autobiographical memories. Positive emotions such as nostalgia and happiness were prompted. Music also allowed them to have higher arousal levels which became a memory enhancer for the participants. Therefore, since music affects mood and arousal, it causes a stronger association between memories and emotions.

     Music is also involved in multiple cognitive functions such as memory encoding, attention, flexibility, and speech processing. It engages various areas of the brain and establishes strong connections between them. Music creates a myriad of brain pathways and networks and allows for stronger memories. Studies have shown that musicians often have a stronger ability to remember, recall, and hear. Musicians tend to show a better verbal working memory than the average human. This is due to the process of learning music can improve the learning of verbal tasks. Another study showed that music allows for better recovery of verbal memory and attention. The speed and tempo of the music can improve the speed at which information like speech and auditory information are processed. As a result, it improves attention and ability to recall. 

     Introducing musical experiences early in life equates to lifelong neuroplasticity. Therefore, processes like learning and memory recall can come faster to those who have played instruments at a young age. Other studies have shown that music education from an early age can impact brain development and boost cognitive function. Children who are introduced to music can have an easier time with language and learning in academic settings. Various tempos and pitches can help the brain develop networks regarding language. Hence, speech and literacy will both increase in children. Having music education facilitated in schools can be beneficial for children and their cognitive abilities. It can improve attention spans, which in turn, can help children struggling with attention deficit disorders.   

References

Dumont, Elisabeth, et al. “Music Interventions and Child Development: A Critical Review and Further Directions.” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 8, no. 1694, 29 Sept. 2017, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5626863/, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01694.

Jäncke, Lutz. “Music, Memory and Emotion.” Journal of Biology, vol. 7, no. 6, 8 Aug. 2008, p. 21, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776393/, https://doi.org/10.1186/jbiol82.

Kraus, Nina, and Travis White-Schwoch. “The Argument for Music Education.” American Scientist, 3 June 2020, www.americanscientist.org/article/the-argument-for-music-education.

Toader, Corneliu, et al. “Cognitive Crescendo: How Music Shapes the Brain’s Structure and Function.” Brain Sciences, vol. 13, no. 10, 1 Oct. 2023, p. 1390, www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/13/10/1390, https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13101390. 

EEG Source Localization: The Solution to Psychiatric Disorders?

EEG source localization is a technique used to determine the specific brain regions responsible for generating electrical activity recorded on the scalp. Since the discovery of EEG, researchers and clinicians have become optimistic about receiving an innovative “window into the brain” and localizing neuronal activity that generates scalp potentials in a noninvasive manner. The groundbreaking method has become a pivotal procedure in over forty-two statistical methods in which EEG source localization played a role in localizing brain activity sources. Although a multitude of noninvasive techniques have surfaced the medical field such as positron emission tomography, single-photon emission computed tomography, and functional magnetic resonance imaging, none of them have been as effective in delivering timely-mannered resolutions and values as EEG source localization. In her research, Elizabeth Paitel pivots her research using EEG source localization towards dictating a correlation amongst age and early-onset Alzheimer’s disease risk factors. Yet, in addition to Paitel’s findings, EEG source localization can also be used to diagnose and cure various psychiatric disorders.  

In Paitel's case, EEG source localization is an essential tool to study the cognitive aging and Alzheimer's risk factors of those who are genetically prone to developing late-onset Alzheimer's disease. The study intricately focuses on investigating the role of executive functions, particularly inhibitory control, with a specific emphasis on the cerebellum's involvement. EEG data was collected and processed using advanced techniques to localize brain activity during an inhibitory control task. The results reflected age-related compensatory cerebellar activity in APOE4- elders, while APOE4+ individuals demonstrated signs of declining cerebellar responses, proving an indication of early-onset Alzheimer's disease. The findings and methodology utilized infer the impact of aging and neuropathology on the cognitive cerebellum leading to further questions of neurological and psychopathological conditions that may cause cerebellar dysfunction. 

On the other hand, Shiva Asadzadeh, Tohid Yousefi Rezaii, Soosan Beheshti, Azra Delpak, and Saeed Meshgini delve into the theory that EEG source localization can be performed to unravel distinctive psychiatric disorders and explore how this technique can cure those disorders in their research article “A systematic review of EEG source localization techniques and their applications on diagnosis of brain abnormalities.” The research article begins by highlighting EEG and MEG and their imperative advantages over other imaging techniques including fMRI, PET, and fNIRS. They use analytical methods, for instance LORETA to traverse through conditions such as epilepsy, ADHD, and OCD to further evaluate their activity patterns and prove an accelerated diagnosis and treatment due to source localization. Through detecting epileptic seizures, studying meditative states, phobias, schizophrenia, and conduct/attention spans, they were able to achieve just that. However, they found EEG developed limitations for such circumstances affecting the accuracy due to electrode placement, head cavities, and head model accuracy. As a result, they profoundly emphasize the importance of modeling precision in the components to provide the most intricate localization results possible.  

Overall, both researches outlined accentuates the profound job of EEG source localization on not only Alzheimer’s disease and age correlation, but as well as an abundant array of other psychiatric disorders which have been long overdue for diagnosis and treatment revelations. It is evident that EEG source localization is a prominent imaging technique to promote the facilitation in addressing pressing concerns as finding a cure for Alzheimer’s disease and formulating better rehabilitation for disorders who do not attain the privilege of having many. This pioneering method has granted the world hope amid uncertainty amongst these specific health concerns discussed and will continue to do so in the future.  

References: 

Asadzadeh, S., Rezaii, T. Y., Beheshti, S., Delpak, A., & Meshgini, S. (2020). A systematic review of EEG source localization techniques and their applications on diagnosis of brain abnormalities. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 339, 108740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108740 

Michel, C. M., & He, B. (2019). EEG source localization. In Handbook of clinical neurology (pp. 85–101). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-64032-1.00006-0