The Moral Concerns around the Consciousness of Artificial Intelligence

 Artificial Intelligence (AI) has seen incredible evolutionary changes since its conception in the 1950s. It has not only been able to process and mimic human speech and analyze complex data but has also been used to perform typical human activities such as creating artwork and driving cars. With AI becoming smarter and asked to understand abstract concepts, the question that plagues computer scientists, neuroscientists, and philosophers is whether AI can reach human-level consciousness, and if so what ethical framework would need to be in place to grant AI personhood. Contemporary AI like Chat GPT is passing the Turing Test (Biever, 2023), now we need to know the structures behind their understanding and if it allows them to experience consciousness.

    In their interview with Blake Lemoine, Dr. Joe Vukov and Dr. Michael ask about the possibility of AI sentience, and discuss the Catholic view on personhood, and the “soul” of AI. Lemoine, a former researcher at Google claims that the language learning model LaMDA has reached consciousness. Vukov, a philosopher who studies the intersection of ethics, science, and religion, states that according to Catholicism humans possess a unique aspect of their nature as soulful beings crafted in the likeness of God. This distinctive attribute grants us sentience, enabling self-awareness, the formation of thoughts and moral judgments, and learning empathy. So if these processes are in our nature, how can AI replicate them? Blake Lemoine claims that there is a way to work around this dilemma: “In our brains, we have dedicated moral centers that dynamically recompute things like context and evolution of language…Build some concrete principles--kind of like the moral centers in our brains--and then work towards a positive goal” (Appleseeds to Apples). Our morals change with context and evolving language, so implementing our language would allow conscious AI to develop its moral compass on its own. 

Other neuroscientists, computer scientists, and philosophers are also considering the possibility of AI consciousness and the moral weight that would come with this. In Grace Huckins’ article “Minds of the Machines: The Great AI Consciousness Conundrum”, Liad Mudrik of Tel Aviv University focuses on manipulating one’s conscious experience to reach a fundamental theory of what consciousness is. As it stands right now, the basic definition of consciousness is the ability to experience things, but this definition does not give us the scientific mechanisms and understanding of who or what can be conscious. In the human brain, feedback connections appear to give rise to consciousness (Huckins, 2023), but again, this does not answer why these structures contribute to it, which is essential to test consciousness in AI. Trying to define consciousness and apply it to AI could have dire consequences: on one hand, if we do not identify conscious AI and subjugate it to various tests to prove its consciousness, then we run the risk of torturing it. However, if we “mistake unconscious AI for a conscious one, [and] you risk compromising human safety and happiness for the sake of an unthinking, unfeeling hunk of silicon and code” (Huckins, 2023). 

With all this being said, what does the diversity of thought mean for AI? Well, it brings questions on the ethical responsibilities placed on humans if consciousness is confirmed in AI and we grant them personhood, a concept brought up by Dr. Vukov and others. Vukov and Lemoine discuss the natural rights granted to humans by our Creator, and considering that humans are the ones creating these AI, we must account for the type of nature we want to bestow on it. This nature acts as the basis of inalienable rights, and we must support these rights if we plan to grant personhood to AI (Appleseeds to Apples). We also need to account for AI being able to understand and replicate human emotions and further our understanding of AI's pleasures, pains, desires, and fears. If AI can internalize emotions, it would mean that we hold a responsibility to extend care to it and protect it from harm. But as Huckins (2023) says in her article, “Protecting a real-world AI from suffering could prove much harder…and that limits the choices that humans can ethically make”. Are humans ready to take on the responsibility and work around the needs of AI? 

References

Biever, C. (2023). ChatGPT broke the Turing test — the race is on for new ways to assess AI. Nature, 619(7971), 686–689. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-02361-7

Huckins, G. (2023, October 16). Minds of machines: The great AI consciousness conundrum. MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/10/16/1081149/ai-consciousness-conundrum/

Exploring The Effects of rmTBI's Past Their Cognitive Barriers

In the world of sport, repetitive mild brain injuries are the most concerning element of the game today. Major organizations like the NFL have placed extreme emphasis on the health & safety of their players using multiple tactics and rule changes. Including the Guardian Cap that the league rolled out for players. The use of equipment like this has resulted in a 10% decrease in impact if one player is wearing it and a 20% decrease in impact if two players are wearing it. Rule changes have also been effective in addressing the rmTBI injuries including calls like “targeting” that draws a penalty and potentially a fine if a player leads with the “crown” of his helmet to tackle another player. Injuries of this nature have also been addressed from a collegiate and high school level as well. For sports like wrestling, football, and hockey. rmTBI is without a doubt a major health & safety concern for athletes around the world because of the effects that have been linked to them and because of the time in which athletes play sports. For high school and collegiate athletes their brains are still in a very active developmental period that lasts up until 25 years old. While athletic engagement is often associated with rmTBI related injuries, “The Center for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that 3 million people experience TBI in the U.S. annually, accounting for a total annual cost of $60–80 billion”. (Foecking, 1) Which infers that it is definitely not just athletes that suffer from TBI’s. In fact, “The World Health Organization predicts that TBI will surpass many diseases as the leading cause of mortality and disability worldwide and estimates the annual global incidence at 70 million”. (Foecking, 1) But while most think that rmTBI’s only have the potential to hinder our cognitive function they also can lead to hormonal changes as well.

Vestibular impairments, are second to cognitive impairments in terms of symptoms of rmTBI’s. However, unfortunately due to a lack of research and limited treatment vestibular impairments aren’t as solution-based as cognitive impairments. Out of the 16% of men and 8% of women who suffer from TBI’s, 80% of those people have prolonged vestibular impairments whose “symptoms manifest as vertigo, dizziness, lightheadedness, and imbalance.” (Foecking, 2) Hypogonadism is also prevalent in both men and women after developing a TBI. Low testosterone and estrogen levels were proven to be major symptoms of both mild TBI’s and rmTBI’s. It has even been proven that “a single mild TBI has been shown to cause chronic vestibular impairment and hypogonadism” (Foecking, 2)

In Dr. Foecking talk, she detailed the study that is currently being run in her lab where she works with “male Long-Evans hooded rats” to test the effects of rmTBI injuries on vestibular function and also test testosterone treatment. The animals then underwent a series of 5 TBI’s 48 hours apart after being sedated. Following the TBI’s they proceeded to undergo behavioral tests that would measure their vestibular battery. These tests included, Air Righting Reflex Test, Tail Hanging Reflex Test, Forelimb Reach Test, Swimming Test, and Lateral Raise Test. All tests the animals went through were graded with 0 being the best score, 1 being partial vestibular dysfunction, and 2 being maximum vestibular impairment. It was determined that there was a “significant vestibular deficiency at all timepoints” with the deficiency score being at 1.5 or less consistently. Another significant finding is the role of testosterone treatment and its restoration of vestibular function. 

While there are a ton of questions that still could be answered in terms of testing methods, process with the animals, and what this means for women this research examined something that had never been touched on before and that is inducing testosterone back into the animal post rmTBI. Which ultimately in the context of this study proved to be successful. But I think it is still important to increase overall awareness about the severity of rmTBI’s and how much of a risk they pose to millions of people just in the United States. With advancements in research like Dr. Foecking conducted,  I think the path to awareness is in the forefront

References: 

https://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/index.html

Feng, Yin, et al. “Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Rats Impairs Cognition, Enhances Prefrontal Cortex Neuronal Activity, and Reduces Pre-Synaptic Mitochondrial Function.” Frontiers, Frontiers, 15 July 2021, www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncel.2021.689334/full.

Bias in Artificial Intelligence and Why it's a Bigger Problem Than You Might Think

When you think about Artificial Intelligence it's easy to just assume that it is a fairly modern creation. What you may be shocked to find out is that AI is a relatively old invention. Infact, its birth most likely predates yours! AI was invented over seventy years ago with scientists like Alan Turing and Arthur Samuel at the forefront of this innovation. Nowadays Artificial Intelligence is practically everywhere. Virtual assistants like Google and Siri and  systems like ChatGPT and Adobe Firefly are all considered to be AI. While AI can be a helpful tool and a powerful resource to be used in everyday life, they aren't perfect systems. Artificial Intelligence still has a long way to go when it comes to things such as biases. AI bias is a term that refers to biased results made by an AI system that reflect real societal biases. This bias can be present in predictive policing tools, fraud detection software and healthcare related predictive algorithms. Since AI is so involved in decision making algorithms it only makes sense that it is as unbiased as it can be. 

In an interview that we read this semester on AI bias and sentience, Joe Vukov and Blake Lemoine had a lengthy conversation about multiple AI related topics including AI bias. Lemoine is considered an expert in the field of AI bias and broke down this complex topic with a couple of examples. He talked about biases present in multiple different systems/settings and the vast impacts they can have on our society. The one example that stood out to me was about AI and the judiciary system. Artificial Intelligence softwares can be used by judges to help decide whether or not an inmate deserves to make parole. This software was designed to help identify people who wouldn’t commit any more crimes if they were released from prison. The only problem is that data on that information isn't available yet. This particular AI was given training data on rates of recidivism instead. Black people being more frequently arrested than white people in America is a fact that the AI system was fed/trained on. This led the AI to come to the incorrect conclusion that once African American people are released from prison, they will commit more crimes compared to white people. This is a hard hitting example that Lemoine gave to Vukov and Burns about AI bias and how it is affecting the trajectory of real people's lives. Biased/incorrect training data given to an AI algorithm can unfairly discriminate against an already discriminated against race! The interview then goes on to discuss AI sentience and the Google AI, LaMDA. At the end, ethical concerns about sentient AI and their possible rights are dissected and discussed.

Lucía Vincente and Helena Matute of Deusto University published a paper on AI bias this previous year. Their hypothesis was that if subjects performed a diagnostic task with the help of a system with AI bias, the subjects would reproduce said bias when made to make decisions without the help of the AI. Their results, after three experiments were performed, provided evidence that there is human inheritance of bias perpetrated by AI systems. All three experiments were similar but the later ones were tweaked slightly to build up on the results of the one(s) conducted before it. To explain what the experiment had its participants do, I’ll explain what happened during experiment one. Students were shown a skin sample with light yellow and dark pink squares and were asked to deduce whether or not the sample showed signs of a made up disease called Lindsay Syndrome. Participants were told that either having more pink or more yellow squares than the other color indicated the presence of the syndrome. The non AI groups were simply given an image of the sample and buttons labeled positive and negative. The AI groups were also provided with the image and the buttons but they were also given an AI generated suggestion on a diagnosis. The suggestion was not always correct especially in the case of the 40/60 color ratio stimuli where the suggestion was always incorrect. In the end it was found that recommendations made by a biased AI system increased the amount of errors made by participants in this healthcare related task. It was also found that when the participants in the AI group went through the simulation without the AI, they demonstrated the same biases portrayed by the AI system. 

Both the interview and the study provide invaluable information about how serious AI biases are. These biases can affect the entire trajectory of a person's life by not granting them things such as parole or proper medical treatment. Within the medical field, biased diagnostic softwares are quite literally making life or death decisions about a patient's life. It's abundantly clear that more research needs to be done on how AI biases affect human decision making. It's also clear that more research also needs to be done on how we can work towards eliminating AI bias in its entirety. 

References

What is the history of artificial intelligence (AI)? (n.d.). Tableau. https://www.tableau.com/data-insights/ai/history

Team, I. D. a. A., & Team, I. D. a. A. (2023, October 16). Shedding light on AI bias with real world examples. IBM Blog. https://www.ibm.com/blog/shedding-light-on-ai-bias-with-real-world-examples/#

 

Appleseeds to Apples | Nexus Journal. (n.d.). Nexus Journal. https://www.hanknexusjournal.com/appleseedstoapples

Vicente, L. G., & Matute, H. (2023). Humans inherit artificial intelligence biases. Scientific Reports, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42384-8

Traumatic Brain Injuries and Testosterone

 

In an article published by The Washington Post, a study of twins who both served in World War II “showed that traumatic brain injuries are associated with faster rates of cognitive decline as we age”.¹ Mainly white, male twins were used, but this doesn’t discredit the conclusion reached by the end of the research. Overall, the study found that individuals “… with at least one traumatic brain injury… that occurred at age 25 or older were more likely to have lower scores on the cognitive tests” and that the traumatic brain injury or injuries were “also associated with a faster decline in cognitive test scores in subsequent tests”.¹ This data shows that a traumatic brain injury does not only affect an individual at the moment but does have long-term consequences. The severity of this cognitive decline wasn’t explicitly stated in the article; however, one can only assume that any kind of abnormal cognitive decline isn’t ideal. What this article fails to address is possible techniques and treatments that can be used to treat traumatic brain injuries, as well as limit the severity of symptoms. However, research has come out identifying a possible treatment for vestibular symptoms resulting from a traumatic brain injury.

            The study that led to these results was focused on dealing with repetitive mild closed-head traumatic brain injuries. In this case, an animal model was used, and the focus was measuring vestibular function. The experiment utilized male rats, and they were randomly divided into sham or traumatic brain injury groups. Vestibular functional deficits following repeated traumatic brain injuries were observed and confirmed in the traumatic brain injury groups, and further testing showed chronic vestibular neuronal cell loss, too. The other focus of the study was to confirm if testosterone could restore some vestibular function following repetitive traumatic brain injuries. So, after the rats developed chronic vestibular dysfunction, testosterone was given to those with multiple traumatic brain injuries. It was found that “animals given testosterone showed improved vestibular function that was sustained for 175 days post-rmTBI” and “testosterone treatment significantly improved vestibular neuronal survival”.² This data is extremely important due to identifying testosterone as a possible form of treatment for those with repetitive, mild traumatic brain injuries, especially regarding vestibular function. However, this study only used male rats, and not female. Hopefully, soon, testing will be done directed towards females to identify if testosterone can lead to the same results, or if another sex/androgen hormone would be needed.

            Both studies yield important results regarding traumatic brain injuries and the long-term effects that come along with such an injury. Traumatic brain injuries are more common than people think, especially in groups like veterans and contact sports players. In America, around 1.5 million individuals a year sustain a traumatic brain injury, and “an estimated 5.3 million men, women, and children are living with a permanent TBI-related disability”.³ Of course, this data only comes from reported instances, and the actual amount of traumatic brain injuries and those dealing with symptoms post-trauma could be much higher. As of now, treatment of chronic post-traumatic brain injury symptoms is not as developed as it should be. Most therapies and treatments currently, especially those relating to vestibular function, have had limited success. These treatments are often done quite sometime after the trauma event has occurred, usually when a patient seeks medical treatment due to persisting symptoms. With the results gathered from the testosterone and vestibular function study, a clearer path toward finding treatment with results is forming. Hopefully, as more studies are conducted, the focus can shift from vestibular symptoms to cognitive ones.

These studies can not only be applied to those with traumatic brain injuries but also may have connections with Alzheimer’s and other similar diseases. These diseases or disorders have overlapping symptoms with traumatic brain injuries; for example, a decline of cognition, emotional regulation, and vestibular function is found in both those with Alzheimer’s and those who have had one or multiple traumatic brain injuries. If a method for treating cognitive impairment caused by traumatic brain injuries is found, that method also can be tailored to address cognitive impairment in those with Alzheimer’s or dementia-like disorders/diseases. Overall, figuring out a working treatment for traumatic brain injury symptoms does not have to be limited to just treating traumatic brain injuries. First, however, new studies would need to be done where females are the centered subject, unlike the previous studies that were centered around males. Once a treatment is developed for both sexes, then studies can be expanded to treat similar symptoms that belong to different causes, like for example, Alzheimer’s. This area of neuroscience and treating traumatic brain injuries is relatively new and developing. Hopefully, with more time, it can evolve into a solid treatment plan for humans with noticeable success.

References

1.     Amenabar, T. (2023, September 6). Traumatic brain injuries linked to cognitive decline later in life. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wellness/2023/09/06/concussions-brain-injury-cognitive-decline-aging/

2.     Foecking, E. M., Segismundo, A., Lotesto, K., Westfall, E., Bolduan, A., Peter, T., Wallace, D. G., Kozlowski, D. A., Stubbs, E. B., Marzo, S. J., & Byram, S. C. (2022). Testosterone treatment restores vestibular function by enhancing neuronal survival in an experimental closed-head repetitive mild traumatic brain injury model. Behavioural Brain Research, 433, 113998–113998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113998

3.      Report to Congress: Traumatic Brain Injury in the United States | Concussion | Traumatic Brain Injury | CDC Injury Center. (2019, January 31). Www.cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/pubs/tbi_report_to_congress.html#:~:text=Traumatic%20brain%20injury%20%28TBI%29%20is%20a%20leading%20cause

 

Artificial Intelligence: A Powerful Diagnostic Tool or A Biased Privacy Invader?

What is artificial intelligence (AI)? While we might think of robots or recent developments like ChatGPT, artificial intelligence has been around us for decades and is seemingly here to stay.  If the use of AI is so widespread, then why is one of the biggest industries in the United States on the fence about expanding the use of artificial intelligence? 

Healthcare comprises almost 20% of this country’s GDP, or gross domestic product. The US spends the highest amount of money per capita on healthcare in the world, and yet there is a vast shortage of healthcare professionals in the field. Could the answer to this growing shortage be AI? AI is now used in the healthcare field in cautious amounts.  It can be used to read and interpret diagnostic tests like x-rays, formulate treatment plans based on diagnoses, answer some basic patient questions, schedule appointments, and more.  However, the next step for AI in healthcare lies in risk prediction. 

Pancreatic cancer is an elusive chronic disease.  It is very difficult to diagnose, and there is no real cure.  Only about 5% of people diagnosed at any stage survive five years after their diagnosis.  It is widely recognized that the main “treatment” for pancreatic cancer is early detection, but this proves very difficult because of the location of the pancreas in the abdomen.  However, AI provides a possible solution to this issue of detection.  AI is already used in cancer screenings, such as reading mammograms and CT scans, but the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) is taking prevention a step further.  

The MIT CSAIL team’s unique approach in using AI lies in the enormous amounts of data that is collected via partnerships with electronic health record companies.  They are able to obtain access to 5 million patient records from variable populations, locations, and demographics across the country, which according to Kai Jia, a PhD student and MIT CSAIL member, “surpasses the scale of most prior research in the field” (Gordon, 2024).  They created two programs, PrismNN and PrismLR which work together to provide risk scores based on the data in electronic medical records such as age, sex, race, medications, and medical history.  PrismNN uses a more advanced approach by analyzing patterns in data via artificial neural networks, while PrismLR uses logistic regression. The goal for these Prism systems is to be incorporated in healthcare settings and assist healthcare professionals in identifying high-risk patients earlier, thereby improving patient outcomes without adding stress to the already overworked physician.

While the use of programs like Prism are very promising, there is significant pushback to the use of AI in this manner.  In Joe Vukov’s interview with Blake Lemoine, Lemoine explains his worries about AI bias and sentience.  There is mounting evidence for possible racial and gender bias in AI algorithms.  People of color and those with diverse gender identities have a long history of being discriminated against in healthcare, from being ignored to not receiving proper care.  Lemoine claims that AI learns from these social patterns and histories, and can incorporate this knowledge into its algorithms. Could this lead to even more discrimination and mistreatment of already marginalized groups by AI? I think this is something that those developing these programs need to be aware of, or racism and sexism in healthcare will be perpetuated. Another opposition to the use of AI in this manner is on the basis of privacy.  Data must be collected from patients and shared to train AI. Could this be happening without our knowledge? 

AI is a rapidly developing and growing tool for almost any industry, including healthcare, and while there are numerous benefits to allowing AI to help doctors and other healthcare professionals in the diagnosing and screening process, there are ethical concerns to the availability and use of this personal data.

References

“Appleseeds to Apples: Catholicism and the Next ChatGPT.” Nexus Journal, www.hanknexusjournal.com/appleseedstoapples. Accessed 29 Feb. 2024.

Gordon, Rachel. “New Hope for Early Pancreatic Cancer Intervention via AI-Based Risk Prediction.” MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 18 Jan. 2024, news.mit.edu/2024/new-hope-early-pancreatic-cancer-intervention-ai-based-risk-prediction-0118.

Circadian Rhythms and the Midnight Sun

      The midnight sun is a phenomenon that occurs in certain places in the Northern Hemisphere such as Iceland or Alaska. During the summer months, the sun never sets or barely sets, resulting in constant daylight. Many people in these locations invest in blackout shades and sleep with eye masks on in order to reduce the amount of light while they are trying to sleep at night. Many people are extremely fond of this prolonged period of light, as it gives them more time to do various outdoor activities and enjoy their summer. However, could the constant light have an adverse effect on the overall health of the people who experience it?

    Light and brightness play a major role in humans' regulation of energy, mood, and sleep. Melatonin, the hormone that causes the feeling of sleepiness, is produced in the body in response to darkness. It is for this reason that it is recommended to stay off of your phone several hours before bedtime. In the absence of darkness, melatonin release is negatively impacted making it harder to fall asleep (Wilczynski). Our circadian rhythms are accustomed to a typical 24-hour light-dark cycle as the Earth rotates about its axis. As a result of the midnight sun, circadian rhythms become out of sync with the abnormal light-dark cycle.

    In his talk, Dr. Fred W. Turek, professor of neurobiology at Northwestern University, explained that circadian desynchrony can have numerous adverse effects on human health. Shift workers have been shown to have an above average risk of developing diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Could the midnight sun be having a similar effect on those who experience it? Unfortunately, there is little research in this area regarding the long-term effects of the midnight sun on humans. Various studies have shown than many polar species have adaptations that alter their sleep patterns to adjust to the new light-dark cycle. For example, reindeer rely on their ultradian rhythm during this time meaning they sleep whenever they need to digest their food (Hickok). There are, however, short term implications of the midnight sun on humans if no remedial measures are taken to combat the constant light. Without blackout shades or sleep masks, the brain cannot tell when it is time to sleep because of the light which can make it harder to actually fall asleep. Difficulty sleeping for a prolonged period of time can impact mood and some physiological functions.     

    Further research is necessary to determine the extent to which circadian rhythms in humans who experience the midnight sun are disrupted and if there are any long term health implications. While people can simulate darkness when they are ready to sleep, there is still an overall disruption in their circadian rhythms. It may also be worth investigating if people whose families have been experiencing the midnight sun for generations have any sort of genetic advantages that make adjustment to the midnight sun any easier.

References:

    Hickok, Kimberly. "How does the summer solstice affect animals?" LiveScience, 18 Jun. 2021, https://www.livescience.com/62870-summer-solstice-animals.html. 

    Wilczynski, Juliana. "Ask A Sleep Scientist: How Does The Midnight Sun In Iceland Affect Sleep?" The Reykjavík Grapevine, 23 Jun. 2018, https://grapevine.is/mag/articles/2018/06/23/ask-a-sleep-scientist-how-does-the-midnight-sun-in-iceland-affect-sleep/.

    

Impact of Sleep Deprivation and Circadian Rhythm Disfunction on Human Health

    Sleep is one of the most important yet seemingly overlooked factors in human health. Many factors can have a role in people not getting enough sleep, such as work schedules, school, technology, travel, and many more. These elements all have the ability to influence a person’s sleep and wake cycle, as they can cause a person to change what time they go to bed or wake up in the morning. The sleep wake cycle in a human can also be referred to as “circadian rhythm,” which according to Dictionary.com as the 24-hour period of biological activity in animals that can be determined or altered by variations of the environment. This is important to human health as a human’s body functions in relation to the circadian rhythm and environment, so disruptions of it can cause many detrimental effects and should not be overlooked. 

    The article, Sleep deprivation affects nearly half of American adults, study finds, published by Sandee LaMotte discusses how many Americans are affected by lack of sleep and what factors play into sleep deprivation. First, LaMotte analyzed the study that was conducted to examine how many Americans fell victim to sleep deprivation. The study concluded that about one in ten adults in America have sleep debt of two hours or more, and that approximately thirty percent of adults had an hour of sleep debt (LaMotte, 2022). Additionally, this article states that increased risk of health issues such as heart disease, obesity, dementia, and mood disorders can be linked to sleep debt or irregular sleep duration in humans (LaMotte, 2022). Thus, many people in America are not getting enough sleep which could play a role in health issues in the future. Furthermore, LaMotte discusses how “social jet lag,” timing of sleep based on society, is one of the major factors that play a role in Americans going to sleep at night. Especially due to how advanced technology is, many people spend more time at night on their computer, phone, tablet, etc., and the light from those devices could alter a person’s internal clock. If there is a big enough alteration of that internal clock, a person’s circadian rhythm can be disrupted, which could then lead to negative health effects. LaMotte states in her study that effects of social jet lag could lead to insomnia, excessive sleepiness, daytime fatigue, or even some gastrointestinal issues. Thus, disrupting a human’s circadian rhythm does have effects not only when a person falls asleep or gets up in the morning, but can also have negative effects on health. 

Research done by Keith C. Summa and Fred W. Turek in the article, Circadian Desynchrony and Health, also supports the article by LaMotte, as they examine the negative effects of a disrupted circadian rhythm cycle and how that effects mammal’s health. Summa and Turek (2014) found that a disrupted circadian rhythm in mammals can cause negative effects on metabolism, microbiota, mental health, or even cause cardiovascular disease, gastrointestinal disease, or cancer. Additionally, Summa and Turek (2014) claim that disruptions can also cause physiologic diseases, which displays that a disrupted circadian rhythm not only has effects on physical health, but it can have negative effects on mental health as well. Therefore, there are many adverse effects that can occur in human and mammal health due to disruption in circadian rhythms especially due to advancements in technology, screen time on phones or tablets, work, and many other factors that can affect when people go to sleep or wake up. 

Overall, the article from LaMotte and the article from Summa and Turek both highlight the importance of practicing good sleep and limiting the disruptions of a person’s sleep and wake cycle is. It is very important to bring the topic of circadian rhythms to light because it can help people attempt to limit the disruptions in their day-to-day sleep cycle. Additionally, it is important to recognize the topic of circadian rhythm disfunction as awareness can help initiate more research of why people get diagnosed with many of the diseases and other negative effects of human health due to this cycle. 

References:

Dictionary.com. (n.d.). Dictionary.com. https://www.dictionary.com/

LaMotte, S. (2022, November 8). Sleep deprivation affects nearly half of American adults, study finds. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2022/11/08/health/sleep-deprivation-wellness/index.html 

Summa, K. C., & Turek, F. W. (2014). Circadian desynchrony and health. Atlas of Clinical Sleep Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-65403-6.00029-9  

  

Exploring the Further Effects of Hormones on Vestibular Structure and Traumatic Brain Injuries

Due to the influx of Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI), researchers have begun to analyze their long and short-term effects, primarily vestibular dysregulation and dysfunction. Dr. Foecking, in order to articulate the complex interplay between the vestibular sense and hormone levels, notes a new solution to many patient’s problems. This solution is primarily hormone focused on testosterone implementation. Foecking executed a closed-head study on rats by stimulating TBI, castrating, and then further implementing testosterone into her subjects before testing the vestibular sense using various tests including the hanging reflex and air righting reflex tests (Foecking et al., 2022). 

A similar article, done by Khitai titled "Hormones and Vestibular Disorders: The Quest for Biomarkers" aims to prove a connection between vestibular function and hormone levels, therefore, it correlates heavily to Dr. Foecking’s analysis of how testosterone implementation can aid the regeneration of neuronal connections. Although Khitai and colleague’s research does not directly address the role of testosterone in post-TBI patients, it provides insights into the more general field of vestibular function and dysfunction (Khitai et al., 2022).

Khitai summarizes and formulates a connection between a multitude of studies to conclude that aldosterone, testosterone, progesterone, estradiol, and other hormones can affect variations in vestibular function, especially regarding injuries like vertigo and Meniere’s disease. Dr. Foecking discusses ailments similar to these and how gendered post-TBI patients face vertigo and dizziness. Her study also discussed how amenorrhea, which is the absence of a menstrual cycle, is a byproduct of vestibular dysfunction and rmTBI. Khitai’s article also follows the progression of Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV) and its prominence amongst post-menopausal women. These sex-specific effects suggest an even more profound connection between hormone regulation and the vestibular sense. 

Given that patients are still unaware of the true cause and solution to their hormonal imbalances and vestibular dysfunction, there is a strong need for continued research. This will be able to further elucidate the connections between hormones and the vestibular sense to aid patients struggling with neurological conditions. 

References: 

El Khiati, R., Tighilet, B., Besnard, S., & Chabbert, C. (2022). Hormones and Vestibular Disorders: The Quest for Biomarkers. Brain Sciences, 12(5), 592. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12050592

Foecking, E. M., Segismundo, A., Lotesto, K., Westfall, E., Bolduan, A., Peter, T., Wallace, D. G., Kozlowski, D. A., Stubbs, E. B., Marzo, S. J., & Byram, S. C. (2022). Testosterone treatment restores vestibular function by enhancing neuronal survival in an experimental closed-head repetitive mild traumatic brain injury model. Behavioural Brain Research, 433, 113998–113998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113998

Concussion Protocol: New Methods for Analysis and The Potential Treatment Using Testosterone

          If you have ever been involved in athletics before, you have probably heard about the risks that being an athlete poses. More specifically, you have heard about concussions and concussion protocol. For athletes, especially at the collegiate level, concussions have not always been taken seriously up until recently. Concussions have a risk of being career-ending, and life-threatening. Now, concussion protocol is more in effect than ever, and something that an athlete will hear about often, however, the protocol still has its flaws. Athletes face a significant risk for concussions, which take up a good amount of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury cases, or mild TBIs. 90% of these mild TBIs go unreported, and people continue their activities not knowing that their brain could be in danger. Dr. Foecking’s research talk about the potential usage of testosterone to help improve the vestibular function and coordination of individuals was extremely insightful, and a question was sparked. What other research was there regarding the concussion protocol, more specifically for athletes? After researching, I came upon Dr. Michael McCrea and his lab’s research. They researched some of the potential biomarkers for concussed athletes, which has the potential to more accurately analyze concussion protocol. The question that he was asking was if a sport’s related concussion in collegiate athletics was associated with these known biomarkers for TBI, and his findings were quite insightful. 

Before we get into the findings, we will talk about some of these biomarkers. A biomarker is a known measurable variable that predicts the presence or absence of a disease, injury, or exposure to something. In Dr. McCrea’s lab, biomarkers that were known to predict the presence of a TBI were analyzed in athletes with concussions. Four important biomarkers were analyzed during this experiment. These were: GFAP, which is a glial fibrillary acidic protein, UCH-L1, which stands for ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1, tau, which is a protein that interacts with neurons in the brain by helping them maintain structure, and NF-L, which is a neurofilament light chain. All of these markers are known to predict TBIs, however, it was unknown exactly which, or if any of these markers would be shown during a sports-related concussion.

The lab took 264 athletes who were concussed, 138 non-concussed athletes who played contact sports, and 102 non-concussed athletes who played non-contact sports. Around 1700 athletes were originally analyzed, however, in total, they only took 504 participants. The athletes were about 70% male. The athletes that were not concussed were used as the two control groups and matched with a concussed athlete based on factors such as the institution they attended, the position and sport they played sex, race, and ethnicity. All of the groups took initial concussion tests as mandated by the NCAA, and also participated in additional balance and coordination testing. They were also initially blood-tested for levels of the 4 biomarkers. 

The general findings of Dr. McCrea’s research were that multiple biomarkers were elevated during the concussion period, and in some cases, they were prevalent even after the symptoms of the concussion stopped. The three important biomarkers that were present were GFAP, tau, and UCH-L1, which were present in higher levels than the non-concussed control groups. This experiment had a lot of success because the finding of these biomarkers can vastly help collegiate athletes with their diagnoses and the earlier findings of concussions. Some limitations with this were experienced, such as the study being limited to concussed collegiate athletes of high-contact sports. Either way, this is an amazing step forward for concussion protocol and improving the well-being of athletes. 

McCrea’s research goes hand in hand with the research presentation that Dr. Foecking had at Loyola University Chicago on February 13th, 2024. Her lab was engaged in research about how testosterone and estradiol, two hormones that are imperative for our development as humans, can improve vestibular function after a mild TBI, such as a concussion. The vestibular system deals with balance and postural movements that have been found to worsen after repeated brain trauma. While her research was on repetitive mild TBIs, it can be compared to an athlete facing multiple concussions that eventually end their career. Her lab did research on rats, after inducing repeated mild TBIs in their brains, and then giving the experimental group testosterone treatments. Her lab’s research and the findings she had about testosterone improving vestibular function could, with further development, help potentially extend the lives of high-contact athletes and even potentially help extend their careers. Dr. McCrea’s research can also help the lives of athletes by providing a more detailed and accurate way to analyze the severity of concussions, and potentially lower the number of athletes who continue playing while risking the health of their brains, and in turn their lives. 

References:

McCrea M, Broglio SP, McAllister TW, et al. Association of Blood Biomarkers With Acute Sport-Related Concussion in Collegiate Athletes: Findings From the NCAA and Department of Defense CARE Consortium. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(1):e1919771. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.19771

Eileen M. Foecking, Arthur B. Segismundo, Krista M. Lotesto, Edward J. Westfall, Alyssa J. Bolduan, Tony K. Peter, Douglas G. Wallace, Dorothy A. Kozlowski, Evan B. Stubbs, Sam J. Marzo, Susanna C. Byram. Testosterone treatment restores vestibular function by enhancing neuronal survival in an experimental closed-head repetitive mild traumatic brain injury model, Behavioural Brain Research, Volume 433, 2022, 113998, ISSN 0166-4328

The Power of Circadian Rhythms: Impacts on Health and Disease

In our technologically advanced society, humans do not rely on sunlight to dictate our sleeping, eating, and work schedules as we once did. Modern-day society functions 24 hours a day, seven days a week, with many jobs in which people are tasked with working throughout the nighttime or frequently traveling internationally through time zones. These things, in addition to others, such as light input from cities and personal technology, are highly unusual in comparison to how human beings evolved and, in turn, affect our internal clock, the circadian rhythm. These frequent and consistent disruptions prompt questions about the long-term effect of messing with our circadian rhythms. Many scientists are beginning to explore the impact of a disrupted circadian rhythm and its contribution to the development and onset of many diseases. 

The circadian rhythm is an internal time-keeping mechanism that is governed by specific genes present in all tissues of a mammal's body, as well as external inputs such as light and nutritional intake. With or without the presence of light cues, it has been determined that neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus generate a 24-hour cycle in alignment with the rotation of the earth (Chen et al., 2023). In his research, writing, and discussions, Fred Turek and colleagues have determined the extremely adverse effects of circadian rhythm disruption, such as the development of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, gastrointestinal diseases, and more (Summa & Turek). In alignment with Turek’s findings, recent studies conducted by Yen-Chung Chen, Wei-Sheng Wang, Simon JG Lewis, and Shey-Lin Wu have found links between the onset of Parkinson’s disease and irregularities in the circadian rhythm. 

Parkinson’s disease results in loss and impairment of motor control and function, caused by the degeneration of nerve cells, and results in a loss of production of dopamine. While the exact causes of this disease are unknown, research is being conducted to determine potential causes and effects of the disease through the analysis of genetics, stress levels, and gut microbiome and their interconnectedness to our internal clock, the circadian rhythm (Chen et al., 2023). The study of circadian rhythms and the extreme adverse effects a disrupted circadian rhythm could potentially have on someone’s health and lifestyle is a fascinating topic that I think is highly relevant to the functioning of modern society. Not only this, but it is highly crucial to note how irregular sleeping and eating schedules can affect a person's health.

The research conducted by Yen-Chung Chen and colleagues looked at the symptoms and effects of Parkinson’s disease on patients outside of motor impairment. Things such as sleep disorders, extreme fatigue, gastrointestinal issues, sexual dysfunction, and mental health diseases such as anxiety or depression are all consequences of Parkinson’s Disease (Chen et al., 2023). The analysis of these symptoms in alignment with what is known about the essential functions and impacts of disruption of the circadian rhythm prompted many questions on the interconnectedness between the two. Throughout studies, scientists determined that people in the lowest quartile of circadian measures have an almost three times higher risk of developing Parkinson’s disease than someone in the highest quartile of circadian measurements. On a molecular level, scientists have seen that disruptions in the circadian rhythm “clock genes” result in lower levels of dopamine production, which is a contributor to the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (Chen et al., 2023).

This research is fascinating and groundbreaking, as the circadian rhythm is a relatively new field of study, and many scientists are discovering just how related and vital it is to human function and the development of diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, cancer, diabetes, and more. These findings promote discussions around circadian rhythm regulation and treatments. Both Fred Turek, Yen-Chung Chen, and their colleagues, in their research and papers, discussed the relationship between the microbiome in our gut and potential circadian rhythm repair by rebalancing enzymes and bacteria population in the gut. Not only that, but basic things such as exercise, melatonin supplements, and light therapy have also been found to improve or have the potential to repair a misaligned circadian rhythm (Chen et al., 2023). While these are hopeful treatment options, the actual impact and success of these treatment options are relatively unknown. The important discoveries of the interrelatedness between things like sleeping and eating, gene and hormone regulation and expression, and the circadian rhythm are significant. They will hopefully contribute to many studies and mitigation of disease development, resulting in lifestyle improvements for affected individuals. 

 

References:

 

Chen YC, Wang WS, Lewis SJG, Wu SL. Fighting Against the Clock: Circadian Disruption and Parkinson's Disease. J Mov Discord, Wu SL. Jan; 17:1-14. doi: 10.14802/jmd.23216.

 

Summa, K.C. & Turek, F.W. (2014). Circadian Desynchrony and Health. In M.H. Kryger, A. Y. Avidan, & R. Berry (Eds.). Atlas of Clinical Sleep Medicine (2 ed., pp. 140-147).

 

Testosterone: Damage Control Agent

            Inspired by Eileen Foecking's work using testosterone to treat mild traumatic brain injury, the question arose: how might this hormone, testosterone, be harnessed for other areas of benefit? While in Foecking’s lab testosterone treatment significantly improved vestibular neuronal survival and indicated a possible therapeutic strategy for traumatic brain injury, its potential extends beyond this laboratory. Numerous areas of research have begun to discover the possibilities for the use of testosterone in treatment and therapies.

Androgens play a key role in the body, particularly interlocking with cognitive function in the brain. Reduction in androgen levels with age has been linked to neurodegenerative disorders. The deficiency induces hippocampal synaptic damage. Despite ongoing research, the mechanisms in androgen pathways relating to cognitive function have not been fully elucidated. With emerging ideas scientists are led to believe testosterone may have a neuroprotective effect. This sort of pondering leads to the creation of new research and synthesizes further knowledge on the reasons behind such mechanisms and effects. 

In notable work, Zhang and associates found a link between testosterone and the reduction of hippocampal synaptic damage. By testing testicular feminization mutation male mice, they observed enhancements to spatial memory deficit and neuronal damage. Their methods included a variety of staining techniques and the conduction of the Morris water maze test. Resultantly, testosterone yielded such results due to the way it activates the Erk1/2-CREB signaling pathway in an AR-independent manner. The study’s findings could provide new direction for the effect of androgens within the nervous system.

Fascinatingly, the area of research involving testosterone has flourished in recent years. Both of the published works mentioned above note an improvement of different areas in the nervous system attributed to the androgen, testosterone. This opens the door to future therapeutic strategies utilizing the hormone. As testosterone’s power in damage control becomes more apparent, it continues to be the subject of exploration in modern research.  

References:

Zhang Y, Chen M, Chen H, Mi S, Wang C, Zuo H, Song L, Du J, Cui H, Li S. Testosterone reduces hippocampal synaptic damage in an androgen receptor-independent manner. J Endocrinol. 2023 Dec 13;260(2):e230114. doi: 10.1530/JOE-23-0114. PMID: 37991884; PMCID: PMC10762536.

Exploring the use of Testosterone Treatment in those suffering from Traumatic Brain Injuries

There are an estimated 1.7 to 3.8 million Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI) each year in the United States. With the high numbers of TBIs, one must be aware of the causes behind TBIs and some of the ways in which to prevent or cure them. TBIs can be classified into two major categories including primary brain injury and secondary brain injury. Primary brain injury is due to immediate or direct damage to the head from whiplash or physical impact while secondary brain injury is a response to primary brain injury such as inflammation and occurs in minutes to days after impact. One of the most common clinical complaints following these different TBI’s is cognitive impairment and vestibular symptoms. Some of the most common vestibular symptoms include dizziness, vertigo, and imbalance which are most likely attributed to damage to the peripheral vestibular structure. 

Moreover, in Dr. Foecking’s talk, she explains her experiment on the effects of repetitive mild TMI on vestibular function and found that testosterone treatment enhanced the restoration of vestibular function and improved vestibular neuronal cell counts. Foecking’s study was the first study to demonstrate testosterone-enhancing vestibular functional recovery which suggests a potential therapeutic role for testosterone following TBI’s. In another study titled “A Systematic Review of Testosterone Therapy in Men With Spinal Cord Injury or Traumatic Brain Injury”, Ryan J. McLoughlin and his colleagues provide insights into the use of testosterone therapy in treating patients suffering from TBI which compares to Foeckings’ experiment in a variety of ways.

One way in which McLoughlin’s study compares to Foeckings’ is through the use of testosterone treatment in order to reduce the symptoms of TBI’s. In McLoughlin’s experiment, he continuously gave testosterone gel patches for 12 months to men with TBIs and found that men receiving the testosterone gel patches for 8 weeks showed a greater absolute change in functional independence measure and grip strength. For instance, McLoughlin mentions his testosterone treatment process by stating how “12 months of a testosterone patch of 5-10 mg/day in men with chronic TBI and testosterone deficiency with the maintenance of their usual dietary and physical activity significantly increased total body, trunk, arm, and leg lean tissue mass by 7-10%” (McLoughlin 9). By the male's strength increasing over time, one can recognize the symptoms of TBI getting better rather than getting worse. Testosterone is important in prohibiting pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion and stimulating neuroprotective secondary messenger cascades to promote neuroplasticity, regeneration, and synaptic potentiation which is why both McLoughlin and Foecking decided to utilize testosterone for their studies about TBI’s.  

Another way in which both studies compare to one another is through the different tests that each scientist performed in order to measure reflexes. For instance, Foecking conducted a variety of tests on mice that received a TBI such as the air righting reflex test, the tail hanging reflex test, and the forelimb reach test. The results of each test showed that the mice with TBI’s were not able to succeed which demonstrates how TBI’s affect vestibular function significantly. In McLoughlin’s experiment, there were numerous tests conducted as well in order to illustrate the effects of TBI’s on males. When McLoughlin administered his testosterone gel patches, he measured the strength reflex within his participants and found that “Testosterone gel 50 mg/day for eight weeks in men with testosterone deficiency and moderate-to-severe TBI less than six months post-TBI exposure improved grip strength by 19.5 pounds while placebo gel in men with TBI and testosterone deficiency only increased grip strength by 5.5 pounds” (McLoughlin 9). By the male's strength reflex increasing over time, one is able to recognize the relationship between testosterone and vestibular function. Likewise, when Foecking administered testosterone treatment in the mice, the reflexes rapidly increased as well which emphasizes the importance of testosterone in treating those suffering from TBI’s. 

With traumatic brain injuries rapidly increasing throughout the United States, it is important to recognize and bring awareness to ways in which TBIs can be cured. One way in which TBIs can be treated is through the use of testosterone treatment which is what both Foecking and McLoughlin discovered in their studies. Both scientists focused on vestibular function and found that vestibular symptoms have gotten better over time through the repeated use of testosterone treatment. Therefore, testosterone has become one of the most critical types of treatment for people suffering from TBIs. 

References:

McLoughlin R J, Lu Z, Warneryd A C, et al. (January 27, 2023) A Systematic Review of Testosterone Therapy in Men With Spinal Cord Injury or Traumatic Brain Injury. Cureus 15(1): e34264. DOI 10.7759/cureus.34264

Artificial Intelligence: Recent Advancements and Implications

    Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a field that combines computer science and robust data sets to enable problem-solving (IBM). It is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines. These problem-solving models can be used for a wide variety of tasks. These tasks include speech recognition, customer service, computer vision, recommendation engines, and automated stock trading (IBM). These are just as of now, and the wide range of uses seems to keep on growing as time goes on. 

    In 1950, Alan Turing published Computing Machinery and Intelligence. A paper is widely known as the start of the idea of artificial intelligence. Turing became famous for being the person to decode the Nazi’s ENIGMA code; he proposed the question “can machines think?” The paper goes into depth on this new test Turing has created, now known as the “Turing Test.” The Turing test is essentially a test of AI intelligence; it says that if a computer can convince a human that it is not a computer, and believe that they are speaking to a human, the computer passes the Turing test, and therefore the computer must have some form of intelligence. The validity of this test has been debated ever since. 

    In his talk, Dr. Vukov explained recent developments and thoughts on whether or not Artificial Intelligence is truly conscious. He explained the Turing test, different philosophical perspectives, the Chinese Room, and weak AI versus strong AI. Weak AI, also known as Narrow AI, is most of the AI that surrounds us today. Examples of Weak AI are Amazon’s Alexa, IBM’s Watson, and automated driving vehicles. These interfaces have a clear input and output and are not directed by anything except for user input. Strong AI is a theoretical form of intelligence in which a machine would have intelligence comparative or equal to humans (IBM); it would have self-aware consciousness that can solve problems and think of the future. Following this, Dr. Vukov gave us the example of the Chinese Room, which holds the argument that current Artificial Intelligence is not conscious.

    The Chinese Room is a comprehensive test of whether or not something has a true understanding of what it is doing. In this example and story a man or woman is placed in a room with symbols placed across the room. They are then instructed to put together a series of symbols. Turns out these symbols are Chinese characters, and the person made a real sentence that makes sense to a fluent speaker. However, this person was not fluent and did not know what they were doing, but it made sense. This argument translates to Artificial Intelligence such as ChatGPT not fully understanding what it is saying, or the true context that it holds, but it makes sense to us humans. This brings to question and more or less shows that ChatGPT and other forms of current artificial intelligence are not Strong AI, and they are more or less ‘fancy machines’ that will do as told. 

    Recently, researchers at Amazon have trained a new Large Language Model (LLM) for text-to-speech that they are claiming exhibits “emergent abilities,” (AI News). They call it ‘Base TTS’, it is a 980-million parameter model and is the largest text-to-speech model created yet. Text-to-speech models are used in the development of voice assistants such as the Weak AI models previously mentioned. What sets BaseTTS apart isn’t just its amount of parameters, but the extensive training it has received. BaseTTS was trained on over one hundred thousand hours of recorded speech from public sites across many languages, allowing it to navigate pronunciations and translations with ease. Amazon’s researchers found that when their model had upwards of one hundred fifty thousand parameters, it suddenly became increasingly better at understanding and speaking language. They claim that “it can use complex words, show emotions, use punctuation correctly, and cleverly ask questions,” (Sejal, 2024). 

    Now this brings some questions to the forefront… Regarding Dr. Vukov’s talk, a sentient AI would have to be able to not only show emotions but also understand them and give a response that makes sense to the system internally, such as we humans do. Although BaseTTS does not do this (making it not sentient nor any other AI) and holding the Chinese Room to be true; it does bring us other factors into the conversation such as the expression of emotion. Not only does it make us revisit the conversation, but it brings us one step closer to AI completely fooling us that it is indeed another human.

References

   Sharma, Sejal. “Amazon Develops World’s Largest Text-to-Speech Model with ‘emergent’ Qualities.” BASE TTS: Amazon’s Largest Ever Text-to-Speech Model Promises Natural Speech, Interesting Engineering, 19 Feb. 2024, interestingengineering.com/innovation/amazon-develops-worlds-largest-text-to-speech-model.

    

    “What Is Sentient Ai?” Built In, builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/sentient-ai. Accessed 19 Feb. 2024.

    “What Is Artificial Intelligence (AI) ?” IBM, www.ibm.com/topics/artificial-intelligence. Accessed 19 Feb. 2024.