Music Learning, Bilingualism, and Neuroplasticity

 Throughout the trajectory of one’s life, an individual acquires new knowledge and skills that require the brain to adapt and accommodate for said skill sets. The ability of the brain to adapt and become flexible to the new behavior is able to happen because of its neuroplasticity, or malleability. Neuroplasticity accounts for all the neuronal changes, such as a change in neural connections, cell shape and size, synaptic strength, and more. In young children, as their brain is in its formative years, engaging in specific activities can increase neuroplasticity that will remain in effect for their lifetime. Activities such as learning or being immersed in a second language as well as learning an instrument can cause neurons to fire more consistently together, resulting in stronger connections. Given that neuroplasticity is affected by age, scientists are more closely observing how the brain differs in those who are exposed to these skill sets from a young age, compared to those who learned later in life. Not only that, but how the brain is affected by someone who has acquired not just one, but both of these specific skills, bilingualism and music training. 

In the paper, “Early bilingualism, language attainment, and brain development”, scientists in Montreal researched the differences in bilingual individuals who have learned languages simultaneously from a young age, and individuals who learned a second language sequentially once they had passed their more formative years. What was found outwardly in those who had been exposed to the language from birth, is that they were able to maintain the accent of a native speaker, which those who learned sequentially were not able to emulate as well. Inwardly, PET scans revealed that early exposure led to the development of new synapses, myelination, and increased connections within the brain-language network. Children who were exposed to the languages in their neonatal period had a cascade of biochemicals that ultimately, “...might result in macrostructural changes that manifest as efficient activation during speech, increased size of certain brain-language areas, and stronger connections between distributed brain regions within  the  language network…,” (Berken et al., 2017). These scientists concluded that simultaneous speakers had more efficient organization of brain function and structure, whereas those who learned sequentially had more limited neuroplasticity that prevented such advanced abilities. 

A different and more recent study done in Montreal, with scientists from Concordia University and BRAMS, studied how early bilingualism worked in accordance with early music experience on auditory-motor pathways. In the paper, “What you learn & when you learn it: Impact of early bilingual & music experience on the structural characteristics of auditory-motor pathways”, participants were all proficient bilingual speakers, but had opposing experiences in learning music at a young age. Across all participants, the left long segment (LS) of the arcuate fasciculus (AF) had been greater than the right, the expected asymmetry, and was enhanced in simultaneous speakers. Those with early music training though, had an increased right LS macrostructure which reduced the asymmetry of the brain. “...immersive exposure to an L2 in the first year of life can produce long-term plastic effects on the left LS, which is considered to be largely under genetic control, while deliberate music training in early childhood alters the right LS, whose structure appears more open to experience,” (Vaquero et al., 2020). From this study, the understanding of plasticity in connection to language and music is expanded upon, and the importance of learning during formative years is emphasized as it aids in brain maturation. 

Understanding the acquisition of new skills and neuroplasticity is crucial, as both of these studies attested to. Their contribution to the subject will allow for further research to be done, and has also provided a good understanding of why it’s important for young children to acquire new skills, as it’ll benefit them in the long-run.  

Works Cited

Berken, Jonathan A., et al. “Early Bilingualism, Language Attainment, and Brain Development.” Neuropsychologia, Pergamon, 1 Sept. 2016, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393216303293. 

Vaquero, Lucía, et al. “What You Learn & When You Learn It: Impact of Early Bilingual & Music Experience on the Structural Characteristics of Auditory-Motor Pathways.” NeuroImage, Academic Press, 29 Feb. 2020, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811920301762. 

Why Bilingual Education Is So Important

           The first years of our lives are the most critical for our brain development. Research shows that this time period is when we develop a majority of our brain cells. This is when we learn what colors are what, how we differentiate humans from animals, everything, how we learn to speak, everything. Personally, I have been very interested in developmental research ever since I learned how “innocent” our brains really are in the beginnings of our life and much the people around us mold our brain into what they are today. When I was only three years old, my parents enrolled me in a school where it was mandatory to take Spanish all throughout my time there, which was from when I was three years old all the way up to when I was fourteen years old. I did not really appreciate that I started learning another language alongside English until very recently. I realized how much it structured my personality and how I was able to engulf myself in other cultures and really appreciate their language. Therefore, I fully support and believe that bilingual education is very important for a child’s or individual’s development throughout their life.

              Introducing a language early on in a child’s life allows the language to grow as their brain grows. During the early years, our brain has a lot of neuroplasticity. In a study done by Dr. Berken, Dr. Gracco, and Dr. Klein of which focused on early bilingualism, they define neuroplasticity as the “neural configuration in response to environmental exigencies, whether triggered by the requirement for specific motor behaviors or cognitive skills” (2017). Or in layman terms, neuroplasticity is the “squishy-ness” of the brain and how well it can attain information received. This is just another factor that accentuate why introducing new information, specifically a new language, at such a young age is so beneficial.

            The recognition of a language has been found to initiate within the womb; this has been proven because babies are shown to prefer their mother’s voice over others since that is what the fetus is exposed to in utero. According to an idea highlighted Dr. Berken et. al., Penfield and Roberts, in 1959, “…proposed that language acquisition is tied to and restricted by age-dependent plasticity…” (2017). This idea was further proven by Lenneberg in 1967, stating that attaining a native-like proficiency of a language is more difficult after the critical period of puberty (2017). This has been determined to be a critical point in an individual’s life because puberty is a level of maturity that happens throughout the body, even the mind which is not always associated with the term “puberty”. Furthermore, Ellen Bialystok further emphasizes this idea by saying that “the primary goal of early schooling is to establish the foundational skills…the most important of these abilities are language and literacy competence” (2016). All these together identify that the best time to introduce new information and have a child retain it is during their developmental years. This ideology of bilingual education is most pertinent and valuable when introduced between kindergarten and 5^th grade.

            Bilingual education is something that I believe should be an opportunity presented to any child in their young age. Specifically, bilingual education is “…any school program in which more than one language is used in the curriculum to teach non-language academic subject matter or the language of schooling does not match the language of the home or community” (Bialystok, 2016). The idea of bilingual education has actually been a controversial topic throughout the United States because of the degree of racial discrimination present. However, this education system has demonstrated multiple advantages to bilingual education.

            Shortly after this practice being implemented within education systems, specifically in younger grades, “bilingual instruction had long-term benefits for children’s language and literacy proficiency in both languages” (Bialystok, 2016). Specifically, bilingualism has resulted in increased cognitive function, improved cultural and social skills, economic advantages in the new global economy, and improved memory and recall abilities (“Read why…important”, 2021). While it is a semi-controversial, it does have proven benefits when the incorporation of another foreign language is introduced to children during their developmental years.

            With my personal experience of having the opportunity to learn Spanish from a young age is something I hope that every child can be presented with. Having the ability to be able to understand another culture and be able to appreciate is something I am very appreciative of. With everything being presented, I still wonder what it would be like to be able to speak and understand three languages, or in other words to be trilingual?

References

Bialystok, E. (2016) Bilingual education for young children: review of the         

effects and consequences. PubMed Central, 21(6), 666-679. doi: 

10.1080/13670050.2016.1203859

Berken, J., Gracco, V., Klein, D. (2017). Early bilingualism, language attainment, and brain development. Neuropsychologia, 98, 220-227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.08.031

“Read Why Bilingual Education Is Important”. (2021). Texas A&M International University. Retrieved from https://online.tamiu.edu/articles/education/why-bilingual-education-is-important.aspx

Alzheimer’s Disease

As we tend to grow older our body starts to change and just like the rest of our body, our brain also changes. Research indicates that as we grow older our cognitive ability worsens with occasional problems associated with memory, however, serious memory loss can be seen in individuals who suffer from dementia. Dementia is a general term for memory loss and can be associated with a decrease in cognitive ability. It is important to note that dementia is different from the problems we face as we age, dementia has an underlying issue within the brain itself. Furthermore, one of the most common forms of dementia is Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's disease has a very young onset where it is able to affect people under the age of sixty-five. Furthermore, there are three stages of the disease early, middle, and late. Alzheimer's is sadly a progressive disease, which means that as an individual ages over time the symptoms of dementia also worsen which will lead to them progressively going through the three stages. The early-stage can be described as mild memory loss but when one reaches the late stage the patient will lose the ability to carry out conversations. The average life expectancy of a person suffering from Alzheimer's can range from four to eight years after the initial diagnosis. Sadly, there is currently no cure for Alzheimer's, many doctors prescribe patients with Aduhelm which removes amyloid, one of the hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. 

A 2021 study by Lisa L. Barnes looks at racial disparities between the African American population to other races in regards to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Today, it can be seen that one in eight individuals are diagnosed with Alzheimer's or a dementia-related illness. Furthermore, by the year 2050, almost 13.5 million individuals in the United States will have AD thus it is a priority to conduct preventative measures to decrease this number. Sadly, this study shows that older African American individuals bear a disproportionate burden of dementia-related illnesses when compared to other races/ethnic groups (Barnes 2021). Some studies show that an African American individual is twice as likely to be diagnosed with AD than other racial/ethnic groups in the U.S. The reason for this racial disparity is unknown thus in this study Barnes introduced three key obstacles to understanding this issue, these include uncertainty about diagnostic criteria, disparate cross-sectional and longitudinal findings; and a dearth of neuropathological data  (Barnes 2021). The results of this study indicate that the disproportionate burden of African Americans suffering from AD is due to the complex interaction of environmental exposures and biological factors that have accumulated through one’s lifetime. However, Barnes concluded that more data is needed to support her hypothesis regarding the notion that African American individuals are more likely to be diagnosed with AD than white individuals. Even though the numbers do not lie there are inconsistencies in existing data and an important lack of data that would support this claim (Barnes 2021). 

A recent 2020 research article by Konstantina G Yiannopoulou and Sokratis G Papageorgiou takes a look at preventative measures to alleviate the symptoms of Alzheimer's. Research indicates that the neuropathology associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) is surrounded by the primary histopathologic lesions at extracellular amyloid plaques and intracellular Tau neurofibrillary tangles (Yiannopoulou 2020). The primary focus of this study is to look at various symptomatic treatments that function in counterbalancing the neurotransmitter disturbance that is involved with specific brain structures. The study indicates that to slow down the rate of progression of the disease therapeutic agents must interfere with the pathogenic steps such as the deposition of extracellular amyloid plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles. Some of the therapies that were reviewed include neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory, growth factor promotive, metabolic agents, stem cell treatment, and novel biomarkers (Yiannopoulou 2020). The results of this study indicate that there is a high proportion of lack of success with using therapeutic agents in AD clinical trials, however, there is a higher range in the success of using biomarkers that are proven to alleviate AD symptoms (Yiannopoulou 2020). Lastly, the study indicates that with the combination of all these techniques an effective medication can be created these techniques include risk factor elimination, comorbid disease treatment, lifestyle modifications, AD biomarkers, and a combination of DMTs that play a role in the neuropsychology of the patient. 

Through both studies, it can be seen that there is an intense racial disparity between African American individuals and white people, however, through new findings and treatment options that have been recently discovered. It is more likely than not that these medicative treatments will be applied to all people including African Americans thus proving how we are one step closer in helping everyone suffering from this disease. 

References:

Barnes L. L. (2022). Alzheimer disease in African American individuals: increased incidence or not enough data?. Nature reviews. Neurology, 18(1), 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41582-021-00589-3

Yiannopoulou, K. G., & Papageorgiou, S. G. (2020). Current and Future Treatments in Alzheimer Disease: An Update. Journal of central nervous system disease, 12, 1179573520907397. https://doi.org/10.1177/1179573520907397

What Is Alzheimer's?” Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia, https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/what-is-alzheimers. 

The Implications of a Plastic Brain

Among all of the fascinating aspects of the human brain and its abilities, its plastic nature is something that, in my opinion, stands out as particularly interesting. The plasticity of the brain refers to the organ’s ability to rewire itself in respect to one’s experiences and interactions with their environment. A specific example of the brain’s ability to change its wiring is when one acquires a new skill (such as a second language); the brain’s plasticity is the basis of one’s ability to learn and acquire new information!

In their 2016 paper titled Early bilingualism, language attainment, and brain development, Berken et al. explore the mechanisms and larger trends associated with brain development in conjunction with early postnatal bilingualism/language acquisition. They highlight the advantages of studying neural plasticity in bilinguals to analyze how the brain wires itself when it learns a skill early on in life, versus later, after the brain’s circuitry is less plastic and language pathways are already fully developed. In their review of a multitude of findings, they conclude that language acquisition is “…likely determined by a series of nested optimal periods of variable onset, offset, and duration that are influenced by both pre-programmed molecular signals and sensory experience” (224). Overall, in this paper, the researchers’ primary conclusion is that language acquisition is “...likely determined by a series of…optimal periods of variable onset, offset, and duration that are influenced by both pre-programmed molecular signals and sensory experience (Werker and Hensch, 2015)” (224). To make that more digestible for a non-scientific audience, this essentially means that the acquisition of language is determined by the time in which one learns it; this time is determined by biological actions at the molecular level, and one’s experiences as well. Furthermore they go on to say that when exposed to two languages from birth, there is equal proficiency in both languages due to the fact that the brain early on in life is especially plastic and “...the window for language development is open and because the brain has the capacity to rather easily streamline the wiring of neural circuitry serving the two languages” (224).

In her article titled Neuroplasticity: There is Always Hope After Stroke, Katie Brown aims to highlight the role of neuroplasticity in helping stroke victims recover from their brain injuries. Although strokes can be devastating and leave people in seemingly hopeless situations, Brown assures that “...those who experience a stroke or brain injury can continue to improve even years later. Our brains are able to relearn, restore, and compensate for damage that may have occurred” (Brown 1). Although the scientific paper by Berken et al. focuses on the very plastic nature of the brain during language acquisition in the first few years of one’s life, Brown’s article asserts that, despite the brain being more plastic in those early years of life, it remains plastic throughout one’s lifetime. She uses modern neuroscientific knowledge to give hope to individuals who were victims of strokes by highlighting the basics of neuroplasticity, and how one can go about relearning abilities they lost to regain some sort of function that may have been lost.

Conclusively, the crossover between Berken et al.'s paper and Brown’s article is evident upon inspection: the cross between knowledge achieved from research and the clinical implications of said knowledge are fascinating. Although both pieces of writing address the brain’s plasticity in different contexts, the underlying theme is the same: this remarkable ability can allow for recovery from strokes, underlies the ability to learn, and allows one to adapt to their environments.

References:

Berken, J. A., Gracco, V. L., & Klein, D. (2017). Early bilingualism, language attainment, and brain development. Neuropsychologia, 98, 220–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.08.031

Brown, Katie. “Neuroplasticity: There Is Always Hope after Stroke.” Neuro Speech Solutions,         Neuro Speech Solutions, 7 Dec. 2021, https://www.neurospeechsolutions.com/client-blog/about-neuroplasticity-speech-therapy.

Reactivating the Brain in 2022 (How to?)

 

Reactivating the Brain in 2022; “How to” 

        Although there have been many advancements in manipulating the brain through magnetic and electrical stimulation, the applicability of these experimental methods is still new and being innovated. 

        Through Dr. Pavon’s lecture, we have seen TMS being used alongside EEG in order to collectively study the neurophysiology of the human brain. Dr. Pavon was interested in studying motor and language systems that reside in our brain, and he is using this knowledge to develop speech therapies for post-stroke candidates (Pavon, 2019). His research was really meaningful to me, and it sparked a question within me. What other studies are there which delve deeper upon connectivity, excitability (or lack thereof), and neuroplasticity? If there are other studies, are they involved with other brain systems and how is application looking like on that end? 

        One of the lectures that I have attended outside of class is from Noam Y. Harel, a physician at the Peters VA Medical center. His article, “Non-Invasive electrical stimulation for spinal cord injury and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis” was very informative and showed that this type of brain stimulation could be very helpful for other neurological diseases as well. Dr. Harel talks about how spinal cord injury (SCI) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are both known to result in “frying” of spinal cord circuits (Harel, 2021). ALS and SCI will reduce the connections between the motor neurons which aid in the planning (pre-cursor step) and execution of movement. Through their research, the researchers have discovered that they are able to electrically stimulate these spinal cord circuits in order to increase the effectiveness of the circuit. Not only that, but by stimulating these circuits, the brain is actually also able to increase its neural plasticity. Dr. Harel uses this phenomenon to increase the sensitivity of circuits and enhance the body’s response when it receives signals from higher level brain processing (Harel, 2020). 

         In fact, one of the novel methods that has been developed in Dr. Harel’s lab is cervical electrical stimulation, also known as CES. This is a non-invasive method that actually activates muscles on upper limbs by innervating motor nerve root ganglions. This is in a graded matter, meaning that different intensity will have a different effect (Harel 2020). Dr. Harel’s lab has a motto, “Fire together and wire together”. He talks about how nerves will strengthen if they are fired simultaneously. Similar to Dr. Pavon’s research, Dr. Harel is also testing to find the “sweet spot” of testing different combinations of magnetic and electrical stimulation in the brain. Identifying this “sweet spot” means that the researchers need to do a lot of work in order to see what is the timings and frequency of activation that will yield the maximum results/benefits. The possibilities of this research are very diverse and affect many body systems. In fact, Dr. Harel and his team are working on even improving hand function, lumbar spine mobility, blood flow, and even inflammation. 

         This type of rehabilitation research takes a lot of work and data to complete because it not only requires internal validity, but it also requires a lot of generalizability. This research must be able to apply to all people of various backgrounds, hence it requires a lot of work done on the backend, and it involves lots of statistics and data processing. I find the area of non-invasive experimental methods really interesting because this is the future, a science that will allow us to aid/help the most powerful entity, the brain. 

 Citations: 

M Boakye, B Ugiliweneza, F Madrigal, S Mesbah… - Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural                 Interface, 2021, “Clinical trial designs for neuromodulation in chronic spinal cord injury using                 epidural stimulation” 

Nigel C. Rogasch, Caley Sullivan, Richard H. Thomson, Nathan S. Rose, Neil W. Bailey, Paul B.                    Fitzgerald, Faranak Farzan, Julio C. Hernandez-Pavon, “Analysing concurrent transcranial magnetic         stimulation and electroencephalographic data: A review and introduction to the open-source TESA             software, NeuroImage, Volume 147, 2017, Pages 934-951, ISSN 1053-8119,                                                 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.10.031. 

Yu-Kuang Wu, Jonah M. Levine, Jaclyn R. Wecht, Matthew T. Maher, James M. LiMonta, Sana Saeed,         Tiffany M. Santiago, Eric Bailey, Shivani Kastuar, Kenneth S. Guber, Lok Yung, Joseph P. Weir, Jason        B. Carmel, Noam Y. Harel, Posteroanterior cervical transcutaneous spinal stimulation targets ventral          and dorsal nerve roots, Clinical Neurophysiology, Volume 131, Issue 2, 2020, Pages 451-460, ISSN         1388-2457, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2019.11.056.