Suffering from Memory Loss...But Maybe not for Long.

      From being able to recall that you need to do laundry to remembering your 6th birthday party, memory is one of the most essential tools that is constantly being utilized by humans and animals alike throughout our daily life. Memory is best defined as the process and ability to obtain, encode, store, and retrieve information. While it isn't always obvious to us, we use memory all the time, and is a vital part of our survival and daily life. Additionally, there is more than one type of memory, some common types of memory include short-term memory, long-term memory, and sensory memory.

    Stephanie Grella has recently published an article that examines contextual memory. This type of memory refers to the context surrounding a particular experience or event, beyond the physical location or spatial information at the location. Contextual memory includes things such as emotions and various other circumstances or relevant information encompassing the experience. Dr. Grella makes a point in her article to explore the relevancy of different parts of the brain such as the hippocampus and the locus coeruleus (LC) and their ties to Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's disease is usually associated with it's most commonly known symptom, dementia and memory loss. 

    Alzheimer's disease and dementia is known to affect the senior populations, however, more research regarding a different type of memory loss has recently been published. Infantile amnesia is a growing research field, which is dedicated to studying the loss of memory in infants. An article published in Science discusses how new research with rodents discovered that memories we believe we have lost, may not actually be lost, instead forgotten. Additionally, there has been more recent studies with human participants, and there is hope to even ttry to reverse engineer early memory formation in order to figure out how to reactivate these memories. This is still a rapidly emerging field of research, but it might be possible to someday recall memories that we once thought were lost forever.

Sources:

1.) https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-memory-2795006

2.) https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2024.1342622/full

3.) https://www.science.org/content/article/are-your-earliest-childhood-memories-still-lurking-your-mind-or-gone-forever

The Potential of Art Therapy with Alzheimer's Disease

In the world of Alzheimer's disease (AD), pharmacological options often fall short and or are invasive to the patient. However, non-pharmacological interventions such as art therapy are gaining popularity and showing promise. Art therapy engages cognitive and emotional faculties which can potentially offer support for individuals suffering from AD. The underlying mechanism at work remains unknown but focusing on certain parts of the brain may reveal some things.

In the research article, "Cerebellar EEG source localization reveals age-related compensatory activity moderated by genetic risk for Alzheimer's disease" the researchers delved into the relationship between age and genetic risk factors for AD. Particularly they focused on the role of the cerebellum in executive functioning using EEG data. Previous studies showed that individuals who are aging have signs of compensatory brain activity to help maintain proper function. The researchers of this study found that older age predicts greater cerebellar activity during inhibitory tasks which shows that there is a compensatory role for AD in the cerebellum. The issue arises because there is only a finite amount of compensatory capacity available and it depletes faster in those who carry the APOE4 allele. This means individuals with this gene are more at risk of having an earlier impact on their cerebellar function than those without it the risk factor when aging. In particular, the posterior cerebellum activation during the inhibitory test is in line with pre-existing research. Previous research has shown crus 1 and 2 are vulnerable to age-related Alzheimer development which are located in the posterior portion of the cerebellum. This also indicates potential early impacts on cerebellar function for individuals at risk of AD. Individuals suffering from AD have bouts of anxiety or uncontrollable agitation that have usually been met with medical treatment which leaves the patients more doicle a less responsive state.

In the research review "Creative Art Therapy as a Non-Pharmacological Intervention for Dementia." The researchers were able to give insight into the effectiveness and efficacy of art therapy for those with AD. They explain the importance of having alternative interventions for dementia and art therapy offers a holistic approach to managing behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) that were unknown before. Art therapy allows individuals living with AD to express their emotions and cope with the cognitive challenges they face on an everyday basis. Having patients facilitate a more interpersonal connection with their caregivers and giving them a sense of living in the moment helps reduce agitation and anxiety which keeps their mood in balance. Art therapy is especially helpful with dementia patients because of the concept of person-centered care. Each person living with AD has unique needs and preferences and using art helps to tailor a more personal experience for each person, this helps promote a sense of belonging and lets them share their experience. Art therapy not only supports emotional well-being but also helps promote cognitive function in the brain. Art therapy can have an indirect effect on the cerebellum, engaging in creative activities stimulates neural networks that regulate emotional attention and motor control. 

Connecting the two studies we can come to the conclusion that observable improvements in the quality and overall well-being of life for individuals suffering from AD can be mediated by changes in the cerebral activity induced by art therapy. The genetic difference observable from the first study goes to show the importance of having unique and personalized patient care instead of having pharmacological interventions at the cost of the patient. Both studies talk about the importance of having nonpharmacological interventions and the need for a greater understanding of the underlying mechanism of AD, but by using the power of creative expression with the neural underpinnings we are discovering, we will be able to help the well-being of dementia patients.

References:

Emblad, Shayla Y M, and Elizabeta B Mukaetova-Ladinska. “Creative Art Therapy as a Non-Pharmacological Intervention for Dementia: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease Reports, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 3 May 2021, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8203286/#sec0005title. 

Paitel, E. R., & Nielson, K. A. (2023). Cerebellar EEG source localization reveals age-related compensatory activity moderated by genetic risk for Alzheimer's disease. Psychophysiology, 60, e14395. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14395

 

Cramming for an Exam? Bring out Beethoven!

   

Music has existed since the dawn of humanity…it serves as a form of social connection, expression of creativity and identity, cultural statement, and much more. In more recent decades, the link between music, learning, and memory has started to be explored in the study of neuroscience. As Dr. Dye touched on in our neuroscience seminar, playing an instrument has been proven to promote neuroplasticity all the way through older age; Even playing an instrument as a young adult can positively impact one’s memory, sound processing ability, and attention at age 65. After learning about these astonishing benefits, I wondered about the short term effects of just listening to music rather than playing it. Especially as I enter finals week, I am curious about the validity of study tips asserting that classical music can help one retain information for exams. The research article Classical music, educational learning, and slow wave sleep: A targeted memory reactivation experiment by Chenlu Gao, Paul Fillmore, and Michael K Scullin explores the impact of classical music on targeted memory reactivation, or TMR. 

The 50 college-aged participants (ages 18-33) listened to pieces by Chopin, Beethoven, and Vivaldi while studying a microeconomics lecture and then either control noise or the same piano pieces during slow wave sleep. Half of the participants listened to the piano music being replayed while they slept (TMR condition), while the other half listened to white noise. Broadly, the results showed that the students in the TMR condition scored about 18% higher on their microeconomics test on the lecture material the next day compared to the students who listened to the white noise. The researchers suggested that this result occurred due to the music pairing, asserting that repeating the same pieces by Chopin, Beethoven, and Vivaldi stimulated the brain to consolidate memories of the information more efficiently. This reminds of similar phenomena, like when the scent of flowers or bread can bring one back to a specific memory or time. 

Spectral analysis performed during the study also indicated that during slow wave sleep there was a notable increase in the frontal theta activity, a type of neural electrical pulse that is thought to play a role in information consolidation, processing, creativity, and memories. Theta activity is usually seen when the brain is in a relaxed state, like sleeping, meditation, or daydreaming. Following this logic, greater frontal theta activity could help protect against forgetting information from the microeconomics lecture, and increase memory consolidation related to higher scores on the exam. Essentially, the researchers successfully primed the students in the TMR condition to perform 18% better on the exam by simply playing the piano music as they slept and promoting heightened frontal lobe activity through doing so. 

However, it is important to note that there was no significant disparity observed between the TMS and white noise groups during the follow up assessment conducted 9 months later. Both cohorts dropped down to baseline knowledge levels that matched their pretest scores. This indicates that the experimentally consolidated memories were no more resistant to long term forgetting compared to the control group. Further research could explore methods to promote long term memory retention through listening to music, as this experiment only showed benefits between listening to music while studying and its subsequent impact on next-day exam performance. As the semester nears its end for me and my fellow college students, this research expanding on the benefits of music through the lens of neuroscience offers intriguing study recommendations. For those cramming the night before an exam, consider incorporating classical music into your study routine and continue listening to the same pieces while you sleep. The potential 18% boost in performance the next day could be worth it. 

Gao, C., Fillmore, P., & Scullin, M. K. (2020). Classical music, educational learning, and slow wave sleep: A targeted memory reactivation experiment. Neurobiology of learning and memory, 171, 107206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2020.107206

Can Piano Lessons Be Key to Preventing Dementia?

Dementia is used to describe things like the loss of memory, problem-solving, and more. There are many types of dementia like Alzheimer’s, Vascular Dementia, and more. The damage to the brain cells causes this. Different types of brain cell damage are associated with different types of dementia. For example, in Alzheimer’s, a build-up of protein can prevent brain cells from communicating with each other. There are risk factors for dementia like age and genetics and age, however, those are factors that cannot be changed easily. So the question of how can we combat against getting disorder arises. The practice of music has been a topic of interest in preventing dementia. 

In Nina Kraus and Travis White-Schwoch’s article “The Argument for Music Education” different articles imply that there is a connection between playing an instrument and neuroplasticity, which is how the brain changes to what it is going through, like when we learn something for example, the wiring of our brain can change in response to that. In the news article, “Can Playing an instrument help protect you from Dementia?” A study found that people who were 40 and older and had played an instrument or even sang had better executive function. These activities could be a way to preserve brain health in people, especially in light of diseases like dementia. In another article, “Can Music help train our brains to delay cognitive decline” they discussed a study by which intensive music playing can slow down the loss of gray matter in the brain so that it can maintain its plasticity, by doing this, it is possible to prevent the brain from degenerating. 

With all these benefits from playing music, it can help to prevent our brain from degenerating and for it to be strong, and there are many other benefits as well. More research is to be don on this connection. 

Works Cited:

Berman, Robby. “Cognitive Decline: Can Practicing Music Help Prevent It?” Medical News Today, MediLexicon International, www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/can-music-help-train-our-brains-to-delay-cognitive-decline#Differences-between-playing-and-listening-to-musi. Accessed 1 May 2024.

Marshall, Mallika. “Can Playing an Instrument Help Protect You from Developing Dementia?” CBS News, CBS Interactive, 5 Feb. 2024, www.cbsnews.com/boston/news/playing-an-instrument-developing-dementia-university-of-exeter/

Garrison, Amelia. “How Music Prevents Cognitive Decline.” Pacific Neuroscience Institute, 18 Jan. 2022, www.pacificneuroscienceinstitute.org/blog/alzheimers-disease/how-music-prevents-cognitive-decline/ 

“What Is Dementia?” Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia, www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/what-is-dementia. Accessed 1 May 2024.

Bilingualism And the Brain

 

Happiness From a Neural Perspective

What exactly is happiness? This term, although popularly used, doesn’t have a subjective meaning as its definition is extremely subjective. Nevertheless, we all strive to be “happy”, whatever that may mean for each individual. According to the Britannica Dictionary, “Happiness in psychology, a state of emotional well-being that a person experiences either in a narrow sense, when good things happen in a specific moment, or more broadly, as a positive evaluation of one’s life and accomplishments overall—that is, subjective well-being”(Britannica). This brings the question of how we can cultivate a positive evaluation of our lives? With various mental illnesses such as depression or anxiety on the rise, it is crucial to ask these questions so that our society can understand how to halt this rapid increase. Working towards one’s ultimate goal of happiness is not an easy feat, but neuroscientists and psychologists have investigated the functional neuroanatomy of happiness and pleasure. Allowing people to take a scientific route of understanding happiness and work towards potential theories can be groundbreaking for the mental wellbeing of many.

Mental health appears to be such a strong priority in the United States, yet, it remains a significant struggle for many. Upon being diagnosed, people often still go through relapses and struggle with issues such as depression. In “ Regulating Positive Emotions: Implications for Promoting Well-Being in Individuals With Depression”, researchers looked into potentially shifting the focus of depression therapy to include focusing on the regulation of positive emotions. Individuals with depression often deal with issues regulating both their positive and negative emotions, yet therapy mainly focuses on negative emotion regulation. So what about positive emotional regulation? The article discusses how a key factor of being happy is being able to regulate positive emotions, as the various benefits that come with being emotionally positive include improved levels of, “sleep quality, increased exercise, and lower levels of cortisol as well as decreased levels of depression and pain resilience” (Silton et al. 93). Research has pointed towards a lack of positive emotional regulation resulting in a lack of “frequency, duration, intensity, and quality of positive emotions” (Silton et al. 94). The impact of understanding how to regulate one’s positive emotions is dramatic, with it having polar effects when included versus not included. So what is the science behind emotional regulation and being an overall happier individual?

Being happy often is a complex emotion, with part of it dealing with a lack of negative emotion and the other aspect dealing with an influx of positive emotion. In the study “The Neuroscience of Happiness and Pleasure”, researchers have driven into what networks of the brain and involved neurotransmitters contribute to an increase of positive emotion. Two highly relevant factors to one’s happiness in cognitive terms are their levels of reward and pleasure. There are a handful of brain circuits that are associated with an individual's reward and pleasure levels, some being the OFC, ACC, NAc, and amygdala. Although the brain has an extensive array of circuitry that deals with one’s reward level, there are not nearly as many mechanisms involved. Scattered throughout the brain are “hedonic hotspots'' that generate positive reactions to pleasures. These hotspots are found in the “nucleus accumbens shell and ventral pallidum, and possibly other forebrain and limbic cortical regions, and also in deep brainstem regions, including the parabrachial nucleus in the pons'' (Kringelbach and Berridge). Research also points to the midanterior subregion of the orbitofrontal cortex as a significant coder of the pleasure experience. Although researchers have not been able to clearly discover all of the brain regions that are essential for pleasure that get disrupted by anhedonia, there is a possibility that the ventral pallidum may be linked to a lack of happiness and pleasure. Researchers have gotten to this conclusion through conducting studies whereas a result of damage to the ventral pallidum, one’s capacity for positive hedonic reactions was abolished (Kringelback and Berridge). Now that we understand key factors of maintaining one’s happiness as well as the science behind it, how can we implement methods in treatment and in our daily lives to cultivate more happiness?

Savoring is key. Savor the moments of love in your lives. Savor the moments of happiness in your lives. Savor the bright moments of your lives. By properly savoring positive moments in one’s life, there can be more happiness cultivated from a single moment, allowing someone to fully absorb the positive energy. In the reading, “Regulating Positive Emotions: Implications for Promoting Well-Being in Individuals With Depression”, the researchers discuss how savoring moments goes hand in hand with “poly regulation and can involve activating a variety of cognitive and behavioral emotion regulation strategies (e.g., amplification or positive rumination) that increase frequency, intensity, and duration of positive feelings” (Silton et al. 94). By increasing positive feelings, one can decrease emotions that deal with anhedonia, which can lead people to reaching higher happiness levels as a whole. Savoring can be practiced in various ways, with people savoring moments through sharing with others, congratulating oneself, building memories, expressing behaviors, counting blessings, expressing behavior, and avoiding killjoy thinking (Silton et al. 95). By savoring moments, one is able to enjoy the sweetness of a happy moment and therefore continue to generate more positive reactions to the pleasures of life. Through working to savor moments in one’s life, an individual can develop better savoring skills, leading to an overall decrease of negative emotions. The presented reading also suggests other methods of increasing one’s happiness levels, one being mindful meditation practices. Research points to the practice of mindful meditation resulting in an increased capacity for positive emotions. Mindfulness is theorized to help increase positive emotions through broadening “cognitive scope, which in turn bolsters the capacity for savoring” (Silton et al. 95). Next time you are experiencing an amazing day, make sure to savor it. If your day frees up and you have extra time, take a moment to slow down and meditate. Incorporating these steps into a lifestyle allows us to take in the world more and as a result, increased positive emotions will stem.

As we continue to look towards understanding happiness more and work to achieve our goals of happiness, it is important to implement these methods on one’s lifestyle. Although happiness does not have a subjective definition, we are all human beings that strive towards positivity in our lives. Learning more about the processes that underlie happiness from a neuronal perspective gives us the opportunity not only to understand ourselves more but also achieve mental health goals quicker and easier. 

Resources:

Kringelbach, M. L., & Berridge, K. C. (2010). The Neuroscience of Happiness and Pleasure. Social research, 77(2), 659–678.

Silton, R. L., Kahrilas, I. J., Skymba, H. V., Smith, J., Bryant, F. B., & Heller, W. (2020). Regulating positive emotions: Implications for promoting well-being in individuals with depression. Emotion, 20(1), 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000675

Cultivating Positive Emotions for Better Health and Well-Being

 Dr. Silton’s presentation provided a fascinating exploration of the importance of positive emotion regulation, particularly in individuals struggling with depression. I found her research and explanations to be engaging and inspiring. Dr. Silton’s work not only focuses on the significance of positive emotions for overall well-being, but also offers practical strategies for cultivating these emotions. Do you tend to see the glass half full or half empty? The way we perceive the world around us can have a significant impact on our health and well-being. Recent research suggests that cultivating positive emotions can benefit not only our mental state, but also our physical health. In a recent article, researchers explored the links between positive emotions and overall health. They found that individuals with a more positive outlook tend to have lower blood pressure, reduced risk for heart disease, healthier weight, better blood sugar levels, and even longer life spans. But what does it mean to have a positive outlook? Dr. Barbara L. Fredrickson, a psychologist, explains that it does not mean you never experience negative emotions. Instead, it is about finding a balance between positive and negative emotions. Positive emotions like joy, gratitude, and contentment can broaden our awareness and help us grow, while negative emotions can be adaptive in the short term, helping us navigate difficult situations. One of the key components of emotional wellness is resilience–the ability to bounce back from challenges. People who are emotionally well tend to have fewer negative emotions and can hold onto positive emotions longer, appreciating the good times. They also often have a sense of meaning and purpose in life. But how exactly do positive emotions affect our health? Dr. Richard J. Davidson, a neuroscientist, explains that positive emotions can trigger reward pathways in the brain, leading to feelings of well-being. Continued activation of these pathways has been linked to healthful changes in the body, including lower levels of stress hormones. On the other hand, negative emotions can activate areas of the brain associated with fear and anxiety. Individuals who have difficulty recovering from negative emotions may be at higher risk for various health conditions. Research suggests that we can cultivate positive emotions through various practices. Meditation, cognitive therapy, and self-reflection have all been shown to help develop the skills needed to make positive, healthful changes in our lives. For example, studies have found that practicing compassion and kindness meditation can lead to increased positive emotions and social connectedness. In another study, self-affirmation–a process of reflecting on what’s most important to you–was shown to activate reward pathways in the brain. This activation can lead to positive, healthful behaviors, such as becoming more physically active. So, how does all of this relate to individuals with depression? Dr. Silton’s article Regulating Positive Emotions: Implications for Promoting Well-Being in Individuals With Depression explores the importance of positive emotion regulation in mental health. While depression is often characterized by anhedonia–a lack of pleasure–research suggests that individuals with depression can benefit from learning to regulate positive emotions. By practicing techniques like savoring positive experiences, cultivating mindfulness, and engaging in self-affirmation, individuals with depression can develop the skills needed to experience more positive emotions. This, in turn, can lead to improved mental and physical health outcomes. In conclusion, the research is clear: cultivating positive emotions is essential for our overall health and well-being. By finding a balance between positive and negative emotions and practicing techniques to enhance our emotional wellness, we can lead happier, healthier lives. Remember, as Dr. Fredrickson says, “We can have some control over which emotions we experience.” So, why not choose to focus on the positive? 

Bilingualism and Attention

 Bilingualism is a skill that people acquire through either being raised in a bilingual household or seeking to learn a new language to increase their skills. It is an interesting idea to compare bilingualism and attention to one another because  As we heard from Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim, bilingualism plays a big role in our development, especially in terms of our cognitive development. Attention is a multifaceted cognitive process, which might play into how both bilingualism and attention aren't a straight forward relationship. There are multiple types of attention, which, as discussed, can be affected by different developmental experiences with bilingualism. 

Multiple studies discuss how bilingualism leads to better performance on different tasks, such as working memory. In a study by Friesen, D.C. et al., participants were able to identify the target more quickly when the target was highly discriminable with fewer distractors. They found that bilinguals were significantly faster than monolinguals in identifying the target when it was more difficult with more distractors. This was evidence for better visual attention in bilinguals. 

As seen in Chung-Fat-Yim's article, she addresses the inconsistencies other studies had between bilingualism and monolingualism, as they treat it as a dichotomous variable. Her article makes the argument for looking at more factors that address the complexity of bilingualism and attention.

Resources: 

Friesen, D. C., Latman, V., Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E. (2015). Attention during visual search: The benefit of bilingualism. International Journal of Bilingualism, 19(6), 693-702. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006914534331

Neural Correlates of Cross-linguistic Transfer Effect During Phonological Tasks in Chinese-English Bilingual Children

 Neural Correlates of Cross-linguistic Transfer Effect During Phonological Tasks in Chinese-English Bilingual Children

 

            An estimated 20% of Americans are bilingual. There has been extensive research on the cognitive effects of bilingualism in childhood development. Although it has been shown that bilingualism can have beneficial effects on cognitive performance, most of the mechanisms behind how a second language is acquired and maintained in conjunction with the first language is unknown.

            In the research article titled, The Multifaceted Nature of Bilingualism and Attention, Dr. Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim and her colleagues focused on the effect of bilingualism on attention. There are five different levels of attention. These levels are sustained attention, alternating attention, selective attention, divided attention, and disengagement of attention. Sustained attention refers to being able to continuously focus on one task or subject amid what’s going on in the environment. Alternating attention refers to switching or shifting attention between two subjects. Selective attention refers to focusing on only one subject at a time. Divided attention refers to processing multiple subjects at the same time. Lastly, disengagement of attention refers to being able to remove attention from one task and shift it to another. In the experiment, Dr. Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim and her colleagues had participants perform several tasks that observe the differences in each type of attention between bilinguals and monolinguals. The researchers found that bilingualism enhances sustained attention and selective attention. Alternating attention is also stronger in bilinguals compared to monolinguals. As for divided attention, there is a possibility that bilingualism could affect this, but it’s difficult to say due to the influence of people’s own individual experiences and the task conditions. Lastly, bilingualism was also associated with quick disengagement of attention.

            In the research article, Neural Substrates of L2-L1 Transfer Effects on Phonological Awareness in Young Chinese-English Children, researchers investigated the specific brain regions that are active during tasks in Chinese and English on bilingual and monolingual children. L1 refers to the primary language that was acquired first and L2 refers to the second language acquired. The L2-L1 transfer effect describes the influence of L2 and a L2-dominant environment on the cognitive processing of L1. The researchers had both monolinguals and bilinguals perform tasks that focused on phonological awareness, reading fluency, working memory etc. Researchers measured the brain activity that occurred during these tasks using fNIRS (functional near-infrared spectroscopy). When comparing the results between the Chinese and English tasks in bilingual children, the researchers found that the bilinguals utilized the right hemisphere of the brain processing Chinese and the left hemisphere of the brain for processing English. They also found that bilinguals prominently had bilateral frontal activation of the vIFG (ventral inferior frontal gyrus) and the MFG (middle frontal gyrus). Meanwhile, monolinguals prominently had activation in the left pSTG (posterior superior temporal gyrus) and the left MTG (middle temporal gyrus).

            Bilingualism is shown to have significant effects on cognitive development. By utilizing both Dr. Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim’s research and others’ research on how bilingualism influences the performance on various tasks and cognitive processing, more can be discovered on how a second language is acquired and how the brain utilizes this language while distinguishing it from another language.

Works Cited

Chung-Fat-Yim, A., Calvo, N., & Grundy, J. G. (2022). The Multifaceted Nature of Bilingualism and Attention. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 910382. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.910382.

 

Housman, Patty. (2023, November 15). Multilingualism on Rise in US: Illusion or Reality?. American University. https://www.american.edu/cas/news/multilingualism-on-rise-in-us-illusion-or-reality.cfm.

 

Kou, J. W., Fan, L. Y., Chen, H. C., Chen, S. Y., Hu, X., Zhang, K., Kovelman, I., & Chou, T. L. (2024). Neural substrates of L2-L1 transfer effects on phonological awareness in young Chinese-English bilingual children. NeuroImage, 291, 120592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120592.  

 

 

Positive Emotion Regulation and Depression

 

Mental illness affects one out of every five U.S. adults every year. It is estimated that eight percent of Americans are affected by depression each year. Since so many people are effect by mental illnesses it is imperative that research is conducted on ways to cure said illnesses. Both medicine and therapy are effective ways to better symptoms of mental illnesses and can be used both separately and in conjunction to one another. 

The paper we read by Dr. Silton talks about the role that positive emotion regulation can play in the treatment of Depression. Positive emotion regulation (PER) refers to changing a person’s response to a stimulus so that their experience of positive emotions is strengthened. Most of the research done on depression has focused on reactivity to affective stimuli and analyzing the differences in said reactivity. PER on the other hand had largely been overlooked until a little while ago. New research tells us that positive emotion regulatory mechanisms are impaired in people with depression and could diminish the frequency, duration etc. of positive emotions. Dr. Silton also talks about savoring which is defined as the ability to appreciate and enhance a person’s positive experiences. We initiate responses to savor after experiencing a positive feeling or event so that we can maintain or prolong said experience. The upregulation of positive emotions is linked to savoring processes. A lack of the capacity to savor is inversely correlated with depression. Dr. Silton also talks about mindfulness meditation which is thought to be able to increase a person’s experience of and capacity for positive emotions. 

             Dr. Marwaha et al. published a paper on treatments for depression a couple years ago. The paper goes on to describe many up-and-coming treatments for depression such as Ketamine. Ketamine is a glutamatergic agent and is an antagonist at the NDMA receptor. Intranasal treatment for depression with ketamine has been licensed by the FDA. TRD stands for treatment resistant depression. People with TRD have been through two trials of antidepressants and have not responded to them. Dr. Marwaha talks about how many studies focus on the use of ketamine in people with TRD. It was then shown that the infusion of ketamine appeared to be working in alleviating the symptoms of depression in TRD patients.

            Both papers focus on finding treatments for depression. Dr. Silton provided an excellent overview of the symptoms of depression and of research that is being conducted on positive emotional regulation. Dr. Marwaha’s paper provided us with information on a novel treatment of depression that uses Ketamine. Both papers are advancing our knowledge of mental illnesses and forging a path for more treatments to be made. 

 

Sources: 

Depression. Mental Health America. (n.d.). https://mhanational.org/conditions/depression 

Mental health by the numbers. NAMI. (2024a, February 12). https://www.nami.org/about-mental-illness/mental-health-by-the-numbers/#:~:text=22.8%25%20of%20U.S.%20adults%20experienced,represents%201%20in%205%20adults 

Marwaha, S., Palmer, E., Suppes, T., Cons, E., Young, A. H., & Upthegrove, R. (2023). Novel and emerging treatments for major depression. The Lancet, 401(10371), 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(22)02080-3 

Silton, R. L., Kahrilas, I. J., Skymba, H. V., Smith, J., Bryant, F. B., & Heller, W. (2020). Regulating positive emotions: Implications for promoting well-being in individuals with depression. Emotion, 20(1), 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000675

 

Insomnia Medication and Alzheimer’s Research

        On April 30th, Dr. Elizabeth Paitel spoke to Loyola Neuroscience students regarding her research on Alzheimer’s disease. There are a variety of genetic and environmental factors underlying one’s level of risk for developing this disease, alongside a host of methods, currently being studied, which aid in detecting increased risk. The APOE epsilon-4 allele is one such genetic component of an increased risk for Alzheimer’s disease. In her research on participants with this allele, Dr. Paitel utilized electroencephalogram (EEG) technology to analyze event-related potentials during an inhibitory control task. Ultimately, she found that cerebellar activity can be used as an indicator of Alzheimer’s disease before the onset of cognitive deterioration in elderly participants. 

        Because so much remains unknown about this condition, viewing the brain’s functioning before and after onset provides invaluable information to the goal of creating a full picture of Alzheimer’s disease and aging as a whole. In addition, such research contributes to efforts toward understanding how to manage or prevent neurodegeneration.

        Another important piece of the puzzle lies in analyzing the mechanisms by which Alzheimer’s disease develops and how medications can be used to counteract it. In an article titled Insomnia drug may lower levels of Alzheimer’s proteins, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) reported that a clinical trial was being launched to test a drug with the potential to slow the onset of neurodegeneration. Suvorexant, a drug that is typically used to alleviate insomnia, has been found to reduce the concentration of tau and amyloid-beta proteins in cerebrospinal fluid. Build-up of these proteins in and around neurons is characteristic of the neuronal death seen in Alzheimer’s disease. This opens the door for researchers to study pharmaceutical methods to treat, slow, or even prevent dementia development while also studying the relationship between dementia and poor sleep. 

        Though the wider scientific community’s understanding of neurodegenerative diseases remains clouded by the human brain’s complexity, we continue to steadily march toward a more hopeful future due to the work of researchers like Dr. Paitel. Perhaps future generations can expect to age more comfortably as their findings progress.

The Future of Neuroprosthetics

  The technological industry has seen an unprecedented boom, with new innovations popping up every day. From 'smart boards' in classrooms to VR headsets that transport gaming into the real world, technology has become an integral part of our lives. However, one of the most intriguing advancements is the potential of technology to assist those who have lost a limb, using different types of neuroprosthetics.

            Losing a limb can have a drastic effect on one’s life as it is most likely something that had to be done to save it. Yet many people are left feeling empty or incomplete due to this and feel what is known as “phantom limb” syndrome. This means that whatever pain one feels is experienced in a limb that does not exist. Although current treatments range from procedures such as acupuncture, massaging the residual limb, or even mirror box therapy, where the nonexistent limb is covered by a mirror that faces the non-affected limb, allowing the patient to trick their brain into thinking the limb is still there, it does not necessarily mean that it becomes a cure for helping the affected patient. This is why many patients become fitted with prosthetic limbs to help them be able to live a relatively everyday life. Due to the limitation in how much movement specific prosthetics can do, this creates a roadblock for the patient to move on with their life. This is where rehabilitation robotics come in.

            Over the semester, many neuroscientists were invited to speak on what they were currently working on, including Dr. Khorasani, whose work involved using a brain-computer-spinal interface to restore the function of an upper limb after a spinal cord injury. During his talk and while reading his paper, Brain-Computer-Spinal Interface Restores Upper Limb Function After Spinal Cord Injury, he went into depth about how BCIs can be used to reanimate paralyzed limbs after a spinal cord injury. With this in mind, how BCIs were able to use recording and stimulation approaches in humans to be able to create a neuroprosthetic to be able to bring back function in a limb left me wondering what work had been done to be able to apply the same or similar technology to those who have lost a limb completely due to amputation. 

            Missing a part of your body is like missing a part of who you are. Many of the features we have as a person help to show everyone who we are and help us to feel comfortable in our skin. When something as big as a limb is missing, it makes it feel as if we are broken and empty. To be able to apply a technology similar to the one Dr. Khorasani used in his study means that many people would be able to feel like themselves again and live life to the fullest. In The Future of Upper Extremity Rehabilitation Robotics: Research and Practice, researchers investigated other forms of creating neuroprosthetics. Developing interfaces that can directly interact with the motor system can restore limb control and functionality within lifelike prosthetics. Current technology can allow patients to either have simple prosthetics or limited function in the “remaining” limb. To help develop newer interfaces, researchers took a closer look into peripheral nerve interfaces that could still send signals to the phantom limb years after amputation by creating electrodes that could access said signals. A similar tactic of using functional electrical stimulation also helped with learning more about how the motor system could potentially be used to bring back full mobility and reanimate paralyzed limbs, as well as help to create lifelike limbs that can be controlled with the patient’s mind as if the limb was never gone in the first place.

            With such technology making its way through today’s world, it’s interesting to think how these “small” advances could one day potentially better the lives of millions of people in the world, leading to improved patient health and care and allowing for people to live life the best they can. When you lose function in a limb, or you lose the limb in its entirety, it’s easy to think that life will be difficult and the world will not be as accepting. However, if these technologies continue to be studied, patients will feel whole, “normal,” and be their best selves.

 

 

 

References:

 

Vu P.P., Chestek C.A., Nason S.R., Kung T.A., Kemp S.W.P., Cederna P.S. The future of upper extremity rehabilitation robotics: research and practice. Muscle Nerve. 2020; 61: 708–718. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.26860

 

Samejima S, Khorasani A, Ranganathan V, Nakahara J, Tolley N.M, Boissenin A, Shalchyan V, Daliri M.R, Smith, J.R., and Moritz C.T. (2021) Brain-Computer-Spinal Interface Restores Upper Limb Function After Spinal Cord Injury, IEEE transaction on neural system and rehabilitation engineering, 28(1), 17-26

Pregnancy and Synaptic Plasticity

Pregnancy, as wonderful and exciting as it may be for couples and families, is also one of the most complex processes the human body can go through. Recently, researchers have decided to dig deeper into what happens in a woman’s brain during pregnancy, and the results show that synaptic plasticity may also play a role in it.

The news article “This Is Your Brain on Motherhood” by Jenni Gritters explores just that. In this article, multiple pieces of evidence are gathered to study a woman’s brain during pregnancy, including the research of three doctors: Dr. Elseline Hoekzema, Dr. Catherine Monk, and Dr. Jodi Pawluski. Dr. Hoekzema conducted M.R.I. scans of women before they got pregnant and after they gave birth and compared those scans to those of women who had not given birth. From the scans, Dr. Hoekzema discovered that the white matter of pregnant women’s brains did not change, but gray matter volume was reduced. Dr. Hoekzema hypothesized that the observed decrease in gray matter may be due to “synaptic pruning." Dr. Monk furthered Dr. Hoekzema’s hypothesis and proposed that “synaptic pruning” may even be the cause of the “mommy brain." However, it was Dr. Pawluski who took Dr. Hoekzema’s work a step further into the possibility of synaptic plasticity. She found and stated that “during pregnancy and the postpartum period, the adult brain is at its most plastic.” Dr. Pawluski also found a decrease in the production of new neurons during late pregnancy and the postpartum period but an increase in new connections in the brain in postpartum mice.

Dr. Delgado also researches synaptic plasticity. While he does not explicitly research it in regard to pregnancy or motherhood, the molecular foundation is the same. In his article titled “Pin1 Binding to Phosphorylated PSD-95 Regulates the Number of Functional Excitatory Synapses,” Dr. Delgado specifically researched the effects of an isomerase known as Pin1 and its effects on PSD-95. PSD-95 is a protein abundantly found at excitatory synapses. On PSD-95, there are two binding sites: phospho-T19 and S25, where Pin1 can bind. In Dr. Delgado's research, he found that when Pin1 binds to those sites on phosphorylated PSD-95, it "regulates the stability of excitatory synapses and may participate in the destabilization of PSD-95 following the induction of synaptic plasticity," which means that Pin1 plays a role in synaptic plasticity through its binding to PSD-95. While it is understood that Pin1 plays a role in synaptic plasticity, more research needs to be done to fully understand how exactly it impacts synaptic plasticity.

By understanding how synaptic plasticity works at the molecular level, researchers may use that knowledge to uncover larger questions, such as synaptic changes in pregnant women.

 References:

1.    1.   https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/05/parenting/mommy-brain-science.html?searchResultPosition=1

2.    2.   https://loyolauniversitychicago-my.sharepoint.com/personal/rmorrison_luc_edu/_layouts/15/onedrive.aspx?ga=1&id=%2Fpersonal%2Frmorrison%5Fluc%5Fedu%2FDocuments%2FTeaching%20%2D%20Onedrive%2FNEUR%20300%20%2D%20Neuroscience%20Seminar%2FNEUR%20300%20%2D%20Spring%2024%2FNEUR%2F%2804%2E09%2E24%29%20%2D%20Jary%20Delgado%2Ffnmol%5F13%5F00010%5Fpdf%2Epdf&parent=%2Fpersonal%2Frmorrison%5Fluc%5Fedu%2FDocuments%2FTeaching%20%2D%20Onedrive%2FNEUR%20300%20%2D%20Neuroscience%20Seminar%2FNEUR%20300%20%2D%20Spring%2024%2FNEUR%2F%2804%2E09%2E24%29%20%2D%20Jary%20Delgado

 

 Neuromusic Research Disparities in a Post-Pandemic Age 

Music education has been a notoriously underfunded field of study within schools throughout American education systems. During the Covid-19 lockdown, many schools faced drastic budget cuts that called for drastic program downgrades. And these downgrades are not suffered equally. Recent findings show that “schools with mostly white students offer significantly more music offerings than schools in the same metropolitan area that serve mostly students of color” (Shaw). Current neuroscience research has been uncovering the potential music education can have on cognitive processes and how it can benefit the average student’s learning experience. 

Based on a study released in 2024, “music can enhance cognitive functions by utilizing different brain regions to strengthen memory” and there is a “positive impact of music education on cognitive development and performance in language tasks, attention, and planning” (Artikatay). All these traits are promising qualities for a student’s brain development. After an extended period of isolation that stunted many young students' first-hand development of educational skills, classes dedicated to the arts are now more important than ever. Isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic has been reported to cause “a documented rise in anxiety and depression and a reduction in attention span” (Einem).  

After the period of extreme isolation that has impacted students from all backgrounds, it is important that we advocate for all students to have the same opportunities to develop and learn at the same level. With the extent of research that has been released regarding the positive benefits of music education, there is little reason for schools to be pointing to the arts department when cutting costs. Creating barriers for students who do not have financial resources to attain private music lessons is a deliberate attempt of our school system to deprive students of reaching their full cognitive potential. We cannot blame the damages COVID-19 has caused for the disparities in music access for students, as many schools are still able to provide those resources. Because of this, we must ensure that COVID relief funding is allocated properly to ensure all students can reap the neurological benefits of music education.  

 

References 

Artikatay, G., G (2024). Cognitive Neuroscience and music education: Relationships and interactions. International Journal of Educational Spectrum, 6(1), 91-119. https://doi.org/10.47806/ijesacademic.1402953  .  

Einem, Johnny von. “The Benefit of Music Education on the Well-Being of Children in a Post-COVID World.” Phys.Org, Phys.org, 8 Dec. 2023, phys.org/news/2023-12-benefit-music-well-being-children-post-covid.html. 

Ryan D. Shaw, Assistant Professor of Music Education. “Covid-19 Threatens the Already Shaky Status of Arts Education in Schools.” The Conversation, 18 Jan. 2024, theconversation.com/covid-19-threatens-the-already-shaky-status-of-arts-education-in-schools-168548.