Connecting the Science and History of Beauty Standards in Humans Through the Studies of Aleem et al. and Vandenberg

     The aim of this blog is to connect a research study conducted by Hassan Aleem et al entitled “Is Beauty in the Eye of the Beholder or an Objective Truth? A Neuroscientific Answer” to a recent news article entitled “Toward a Phenomenological Analysis of Historicized Beauty Practices” authored by Allison Vandenberg and published in 2018 in Women’s Studies Quarterly. To make the connection between these two studies, I will first give a background of each study's nature, findings, and implications, then explain how the two studies relate to one another and complement/challenge one another’s understanding of beauty. Lastly, I will explain the implications of each study's findings and how they relate to the overall beauty industry. 

    Beginning with the study conducted by Aleem et al., the study examined neuroscientific bases of objectivist and subjectivist views of beauty, attempting to understand evolutionary explanations for their development. The researchers gave human subjects artistic renderings derived from artificial intelligence with various degrees of complexity and symmetry and then asked the subjects to rank the renderings in terms of beauty. Participants were also divided into sub-groups based on preference for symmetry and complexity, which served as a prediction for which renderings they would rank more favorably. The researchers theorized that objectivist views of beauty developed as a result of human utility. In other words, humans love the features that remind them of their evolutionary history and survival. However, humans do not like too much symmetry or complexity as it becomes difficult for the brain to discern and distinguish features. Thus, a balance of symmetry and complexity is ideal for the objectivist view of beauty. Because different cultures have different definitions of utility in terms of survival, the subjectivist view of beauty is found between geographies and cultures, which varies the importance that people place on complexity, definition, color, symmetry, and other features of beauty. Thus, the researchers concluded that objectivist and subjectivist views of beauty have a basis in neuroscience and evolution as the brain desires features that distinguish utility and heightened chances for survival.

    The second article, by Allison Vandenberg, focuses on the development and impact of beauty standards for women throughout history, as well as how beauty standards have shifted to be more culturally and racially diverse and subjective. She explains the history of beauty standards in America as being limited to whites only and preventing people of color from participating. Thus began a movement urging African-American women to be proud of their natural beauty such as an afro hairstyle instead of straightened hair. Furthermore, protests against beauty pageants were conducted as women felt objectified and forced to conform to unrealistic beauty standards (hourglass figures, heeled shoes, etc). Critics of Miss America and other beauty pageants took issue with both the unrealistic beauty standards that were expected of women and the physical and financial turmoil that came with such standards. She further explains that such standards reflected a certain racial and socioeconomic expectation, as white women were considered more attractive than their colored counterparts, and often came from socioeconomic statuses that allowed them to purchase items that were considered “accessories” to beauty (such as heels, false eyelashes, hair extensions, makeup, etc). Thus, the beauty standards throughout the later 20th century were littered with racial and economic discrimination. It wasn’t until the turn of the century that some of these views changed with discussions of the natural beauty of colored women, as well as the role that economics plays in accessorizing a woman’s natural beauty, but not being necessary for and of itself to demonstrate beauty. In other words, the subjective view of beauty was expanding as different cultures were able to show their own ideas of beauty instead of an objective lens that was established by a group that had more authority and influence. Vandenberg ends by explaining the importance of the development of other beauty standards and how beauty should be inclusive for women rather than a standard that women strive to achieve.

    Both studies demonstrate the importance of having a subjective view of beauty, as different cultures and geographies see beauty in different ways, depending on how beauty standards arose in those regions. One argument that is mentioned in the latter study that is not found in the former is that beauty standards (especially those that are considered “objective”) can be abused by groups that have power or influence. For example, because Miss America was controlled by a board of White Americans, they chose to racially discriminate against women of color by establishing an “objective” view of beauty that glorified white women of middle or upper-class status. This however contrasts with the first paper which defines objective views of beauty as those traits that all humans hold valuable, such as features that remind them of utility and survival. It is important to understand the difference between biologically objective views of beauty and standards of beauty that are considered objective by individuals in power. The latter has no place in society and can be extremely detrimental to men and women alike as it sets an expectation to follow a certain model of beauty in order to receive validation or respect. In reality, the subjective view of beauty reminds us that beauty is truly in the eye of the beholder as every individual has different preferences and understandings of what their brain deems as beautiful. While science teaches us that certain features developed evolutionarily to aid us in survival, those features are understood differently across different groups and social backgrounds. Therefore, a person should not strive to adopt a beauty standard that makes them deviate from their true self.

Beauty, Subjective or Objective? A comparison between Castro and Grzywacz. (Blog Post #1)

  Amongst scientists, artists, and all other spectators beauty is just as difficult to grasp as it is subjective. A scientist by the name of Norberto M. Grzywacz dives into this concept at the neurological level in his work Is Beauty in the Eye of the Beholder or an Objective Truth? A Neuroscientific Answer. Specifically, he explains how the brain interprets beauty in accordance with the response that is elicited from visually pleasing stimuli. Another scientist who provides commentary on this subject is Jason Castro. In his work, How the Brain Responds to Beauty, he describes the conceptual theory behind beauty perception as both a stimulus and a subjective theory.

In relation to the work of Grzywacz, one of the main points of his study is to provide definition to subjective and objective beauty. In the process of explaining this concept, Grzywacz explains the Fluency Theory. The Fluency Theory is a scientific claim dictating that subjective beauty is dependent on the level of difficulty for the brain to process the visual stimulus efficiently. Thus, aspects of visual stimuli that we deem aesthetically pleasing such as smoothness, symmetry, fluidity, etc, are considered visually pleasing to the brain in most cases because visual stimuli that possess these qualities typically require less energy for the brain to process such stimuli. Likewise, visual stimuli that possess the opposite of these qualities such as roughness, asymmetry, rigidity, etc, are considered visually displeasing because they require the brain to expend more energy processing such stimuli in order to completely capture all its fine nuances.

Jason Castro’s work relates to the Fluency Theory in how he describes the brain’s response to beauty as a stimulus. In Castro’s study, he observed the activity of the brain when subjects were viewing visually pleasing artworks versus brain activity when the subjects were viewing human faces. The results of his study displayed that visually pleasing stimuli typically elicited activity in well defined brain regions. However, depending on the type of visual stimuli, the brain would be active in different regions. These results were evidenced by how the participants showed activity in different parts of their brain when they were presented with aesthetic artworks versus human faces respectively. Towards the end of his work, he expressed that perhaps there may be no beauty center of the brain as he hypothesized. However, if there is, it may have been left unidentified by the researchers for methodological issues with their procedure.

Relating these two works together, I theorize that Jason Castro’s error in his hypothesis is that he did not account for how visual pleasing stimuli in itself is subjective. Relating to his procedure, though one presented face may have been deemed visually pleasing by one of the participants, it may not have been visually pleasing for the other participant. Operationally speaking, this would leave too much room for variability in how his subjects’ brain activity respond to visual stimuli. Furthermore, the variability in how each participant viewed the presented stimuli would also breed variability in the brain activity of the participants when they viewed faces and artworks respectively. Thus, a future implication of this error could be for procedure to be manipulated so that the presented stimuli possess more qualities that are evolutionarily considered easier for the brain to process. Visual stimuli possessing qualities of smoothness, symmetry, and fluidity would help to eliminate the variability of how participants interpret the stimuli as these qualities would likely necessitate similar amounts of energy for each brain to process, allowing for more accurate interpretation of why the region of brain activity differs depending on the visual stimulus.

The Price of Not Sleeping Enough: "You can't beat a dead horse"

     We have all been told that sleep is important. But we understand this in the same way that we understand that we should not push big projects to the last minute. It is a rather painful experience, and we rarely display our best work when doing so, but we assume that the negative effects are not permanent. It was a one time thing, and surely, by behaving differently in the future we can offset the consequences of our poor decisions. After all, how many of us have had our parents tell us to go to bed at a reasonable hour, only for us to dismiss their worry with a promise to catch up on those missed hours at some unspecified later date?

    Unfortunately, sleep does not work that way. Your brain lacks the capacity to forgive your continued withdrawal of promised rest. While it is highly unethical to keep a human awake for long periods to research the dangerous effects of sleep deprivation (after all, there is a long and sordid history of utilizing sleep deprivation as a method of torture), there have been promising research examining the effects of sleep deprivation in non-human animals. Dr. Fabian Fernandez, a neuroscientist at the University of Arizona, discussed the findings of other researchers published in the Trends in Neurosciences journal. He put it rather bluntly, “Wakefulness in the brain, even under normal circumstances, incurs penalties. But when you’re awake for too long, then the system gets overloaded. At some point, you can’t beat a dead horse. If you’re asking your cells to remain active for 30 percent more time each day, cells die” (Whang 2021).  

    In fact, it “also caused inflammation in the prefrontal cortex and increased levels of tau and amyloid proteins, which have been linked to neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s [disease]” (Whang 2021). This finding supports the work of Dr. Fishbein et al., in the paper “Circadian Disruption and Human Health”. In the January 2023 NEUR 300 lecture at Loyola University Chicago led by Dr. Zee, a prominent neuroscientist who wrote the paper alongside Dr. Fishbein and others, Dr. Zee reiterated that circadian misalignment has been shown to predict the development of neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s (Fishbein et al., 2021). According to the New York Times article, “The Sleep Debt Collector is Here” by Oliver Whang, sleep deprivation in mice led to cell death after only a few days, which was a significantly shorter window than previously hypothesized (2021). Dr. Veasey and Mr. Zamore, neuroscience researchers who studied the effects of sleep deprivation in mice, found that the sleep deprived mice still had evidence of neural damage and brain inflammation when examined a year after having regular, healthy amounts of sleep. Dr. Veasey and Mr. Zamore are of the opinion that these findings suggest that sleep deprivation creates permanent damage to the brain. However, Dr. Fishbein et al., have a slightly more optimistic tone, stating that the, “evidence that circadian disruption increases the risk for cognitive decline and [Alzheimer’s disease] raises the possibility that improving circadian function may decelerate age-related cognitive impairment” (2021). 

    It is important not to panic when reading these foreboding quotes. There is much that is still unknown and understudied regarding the lack of sleep in human brains. The fact that humans are notorious for underestimating the negative impacts sleep deprivation has on them adds yet another obstacle in the path of researchers. Dr. Seigel, a sleep scientist at the University of California, Los Angeles, stresses this and “expressed concern that undue worry about the long-term effects of sleep deprivation could lead people to try to sleep more, unnecessarily and with medication” (Whang 2021). 

    At the end of the day, I return to the advice that Dr. Zee imparted on me and my classmates during her lecture. Limit the amount of light that we are exposed to in the evenings, sleep the recommended amount of hours for our age group, and go to bed and wake up at relatively the same hour every day. While it is impossible for me to understand the full extent of the damage I inflicted upon myself through the many late nights and early risings I had during high school, I do my best to prioritize my sleep now. Hopefully we will have more answers in the future, but for now, this is the best we can do with the information we currently have. 

References:

Fishbein, A. B., Knutson, K. L., & Zee, P. C. (2021). Circadian disruption and human health. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 131(19). https://doi.org/10.1172/jci148286 

Whang, O. (2022, June 27). The Sleep Debt Collector Is Here. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/24/health/sleep-debt-health.html

Circadian Rhythm Disruptions in Infants

            Circadian rhythm regulates physical, mental, and behavioral changes the body goes through within a 24-hour cycle and  has proven crucial to humans’ overall physical and mental health. The biological clock consists of tens of thousands of neurons that make up the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus which receives direct input from the eyes. Usually developing around 2-4 months of age, it overcomes our homeostatic sleep cycle that often requires infants to take naps throughout the day.

           

            Dr. Jacqueline Yates, at the University of Missouri- Kansas City, examined the link between infants who tended to be exposed to excess light during the night and minimal light during the day and found that it often correlated to health problems later on in life. The researchers even suspected that circadian rhythm disruptions could be linked to sudden unexpected infant death syndrome (SUIDS/SIDS). Majority of SUIDS cases occur in 2–4-month old’s and those at high risk for SUIDS often have abnormal sleep patterns. There are many infants who develop regular sleep patterns and correct their circadian rhythm later in life but have already had changes in their peripheral circadian gene expression which can cause heart, lung, and spleen problems such as high blood pressure, airway inflammation, and poor immune responses. 

            In the article Circadian Disruption and Human Health, Dr. Phyllis Zee outlines the misalignment of endogenous circadian rhythms, the master circadian clock, and environmental circadian system correlation to various diseases/disorders. She highlights their bidirectional relationship by exploring cases of circadian disruptions intensifying symptoms for patients with immunological disorders, obesity, cardiovascular disease, and some psychiatric disorders; as well as diseases such as Alzheimer’s, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and depression inducing circadian rhythm disruptions. She mainly focused on circadian disruptions caused by work hours in adults and examined how symptoms can manifest over years of an abnormal sleep-wake cycle.

            In conclusion, the implications of circadian rhythm disruptions at any age can cause harm to an individual’s overall mental and physical well-being. If disruptions begin to occur at a young age, they have the possibility of occurring throughout one’s life and impacting many aspects of life. 

 

References:

 

Fishbein, A. B., Knutson, K. L, & Zee, P. C. (2021) Circadian disruption and human health. J Clin 

 

Yates J. The long-term effects of light exposure on establishment of newborn circadian rhythm. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018;14(10):1829–1830.

The Importance of Sleep and its effects on the Brain

 

The Importance of Sleep and its effects on the Brain

 

Many people in the world stay up all night whether it’s to stay up studying for an exam or to spend a night out with friends. In fact, it has been reported that in the U.S. about 35% of adults do not get enough sleep they need to function the next day³. While we may not feel the repercussions of these actions while we are young and full of energy recent studies have shown that sleep isn’t just important to be able to function for the next day. In fact, sleep plays a very key role in our health and cognitive abilities.

A news article “The health toll for poor sleep” published in The New York Times examines how sleep influences our health. People already had a tough time maintaining good sleeping habits, but the coronavirus pandemic only worsened people’s sleep schedules¹. This is because people could work anytime since everything is remote. This meant that people would spend all night doing work instead of sleeping without knowing the significant health issues that are related to it. Sleep deprivation is not only bad for your mind, but much serious health conditions can arise due to lack of sleep such as heart disease, blood pressure, and diabetes 2¹. While sleep deprivation may not seem to be involved with these conditions directly the impact that sleep has on our body and mind is being researched and tested more intensely to figure out the cause of sleep having a much more important role than initially realized.

A study done by Phyllis Zee goes into detail about the importance of circadian rhythm which is a process that regulates the internal processes in our body. When the Circadian rhythm is disrupted, it can cause serious negative impacts on one’s mental and physical health. Research suggests that circadian misalignment and decreased amplitude of several rhythms have been shown to be associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease². It was observed that mice models who had Parkinson’s disease showed a decrease in neuron activity which may have been due to a misalignment of circadian rhythm due to disruption. Circadian disruption and poor sleep quality are normally associated with neurodevelopment disorders such as Smith-Magenis Syndrome (SMS)². These are responsible for the encoding of retinoic acid-induced 1 (RAL1). Mice deficient in RAL1 have a shortened period which is due to the activation of core clock gene transcription whereas in humans it was shown to implicate the regulation of melatonin secretion². A strategy to be able to regulate SMS in humans is for them to take melatonin supplementation which has been shown to help realign the circadian system which is then able to improve sleep and cognitive outcome measures². Children with autism were treated with melatonin and it significantly improved their sleep quality.

As the research done by Phyllis Zee and his colleagues suggests that sleep is linked to not only how fatigued one might get the next day but also that not getting enough sleep and disrupting the body’s circadian rhythm can cause serious neurological and mental health disorders. Although the negative effects of sleep may not be apparent in everyday life the negative effects can be seen more prominently as time goes by. One should ensure good quality and quantity of sleep before it is too late to undo the damage of disrupting one’s circadian rhythm to be able to live a healthy life.

Works Cited

 

Brody, Jane E. “The Health Toll of Poor Sleep.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 6 Dec. 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/06/well/mind/sleep-health.html.

Fishbein, Anna B., et al. “Circadian Disruption and Human Health.” The Journal of Clinical Investigation, American Society for Clinical Investigation, 7 Oct. 2021, https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI148286.

Leech, Joe. “10 Top Benefits of Getting More Sleep.” Healthline, Healthline Media, 6 Jan. 2022, https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/10-reasons-why-good-sleep-is-important.

How Circadian Rhythm Disruptions Affect Mood Disorder Symptoms

    Sleep and circadian rhythms are inherently connected in many species, and the proper function of these rhythms is extremely important for proper sleep and development in humans. With the rise of current electronic technology and blue-light screens on mobile devices, light pollution is not the only unnatural light that people face on a day-to-day basis. Light levels, specifically dim and low-level light during the night have been thought to be some of the main contributors to these disruptions. Besides symptoms like chronic sleep deprivation and poor sleep quality, various neurological conditions or disorders have been correlated with chronic circadian disruptions as well. Among the many conditions, mood disorders have been highlighted concerning the relationship between depressive symptoms and light exposure. Both articles in this review studied the connection between circadian rhythm disruptions and the drastic effects on human health for mood disorders.

    "Circadian disruption and human health" by Zee et al., studied the interactions of circadian rhythm disruptions and many conditions, some of which were neurological mood disorders. Analysis of the data presented insists that there is a clear linkage between sleep disruption and these disorders, through various methods and ways. Manipulation of serotonin receptors had been shown to be a circadian disrupter; when the light was shown at inappropriate times, signs of depression were induced in mouse models. Similar functions with human fMRI scans showed suppression of the amygdala with the same conditions; relations to improved connectivity of the prefrontal cortex show a possible connection between light and mood. Melatonin suppression is shown to play a part in these disruptions as well, like in studying the delayed sleep-wake phase disorder (DSWPD) where misalignment of on-set melatonin release causes increased signs of depressive symptoms. When concerned with aligning melatonin release and showing light at appropriate times, it had been shown to lower depressive symptoms, while in turn decreasing circadian disruptions. 

    In "Circadian rhythm disruption and mental health" by Nelson et al., Nelson studied the effects of specific mood disorders, some of which were also discussed in Zee's article. Their focus centered on analyzing Bipolar Disorder (BD), Schizophrenia (SZ), Anxiety, and Major Depression Disorder (MDD), all of which have diagnostic criteria related to sleep disruption. For MDD, the symptoms of MDD in night-time shift workers were analyzed concerning individuals' circadian disruptions, compared to day-shift workers in South Korea. It was shown that night-shift workers were significantly more likely to suffer from MDD symptoms due to the circadian disruptions of light exposure while working at night. An accumulation of 11 replica studies found that on average night-shift workers were 40% more likely to suffer from depressive symptoms of MDD, showing evidence that circadian disruptions might play a role. Other mood disorders show similar results concerning their individual symptoms and how circadian disruptions can exacerbate those symptoms. For Anxiety, environmental circadian disrupters were shown to have an impact on anxiety-related behavior. For SZ, the severity of symptoms has been shown to be directly related to the number of circadian disrupters. Having circadian disrupters across the board tends to make symptoms more severe or more likely to happen in mood disorders.

    In conclusion, both of these articles highlight important and similar findings when concerning the consequences of chronic circadian rhythm disruptions and levels of symptoms in mood disorders. More studies replicating these findings could lead to possible treatments, and help manage a patient's severity of symptoms for sometimes life-debilitating conditions.   

                                                                 References:

Fishbein, A. B., Knutson, K. L, & Zee, P. C. (2021) Circadian disruption and human health. J Clin 

    Invest. 2021;131(19):e148286. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI148286.

Walker, W.H., Walton, J. C., DeVries, A. C., & Nelson, R. J., Circadian rhythm disruption and mental 

    health. Transl Psychiatry 10, 28 (2020) https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0694-0

A Gateway or A New Way?

If you’re like me at all, you probably don’t remember many anti-marijuanna or anti-drug advertisements (ads) popping up throughout your childhood. And if that’s the case, I’m also sure you haven’t looked at many blogs recently either.

However, if you’re more … seasoned … when it comes to the game of life, I’m sure you can recall ads popping up on the TV screen similar to those from the “Marijuanna Kills” scene from “Harold and Kumar Go To White Castle” which is linked below.

On the off-chance you have no clue what I’m referencing, I have also linked a compilation of anti-cannabis commercials that reflect a fairly outdated mindset surrounding marijuanna.

I don’t call the ads outdated because of the message they try to propagate; rather, I call them outdated due to the things they fail to consider. These advertisements don’t take into account the possibility of deriving therapeutic approaches to various neurological disorders from marijuanna.

The review articles “Endocannabinoids at the synapse and beyond: implications for neuropsychiatric disease pathophysiology and treatment” by Scheyer et. al. and “Current Aspects of the Endocannabinoid System and Targeted THC and CBD Phytocannabinoids as Potential Therapeutics for Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s Diseases: a Review” by Cooray et. al. are examples of where modern thinking surrounding marijuanna is/is headed.

Scheyer et. al.’s review goes in depth with the endocannabinoid system and explains how the system itself can be beneficial in finding novel therapeutic approaches to disorders ranging from epilepsy to substance abuse (1). Cooray et. al.’s review explains why the molecular structure of the endocannabinoid system calls for research into exactly how it functions in patients with Alzheimer's (AD) or Parkinson’s (PD). Along with this Cooray et. al. suggests the endocannabinoid system could be used as a therapeutic approach to both PD and AD induced neuroinflammation, so long as more research is done regarding the cause of this inflammation in AD and PD patients (2). While Scheyer et. al. more so suggests the possibility for therapeutic approaches regarding disorders/diseases that are not neurodegenerative in nature, this review still highlights the potential of the endocannabinoid system to be beneficially used in patients suffering from these disorders (1). A very stark contrast from the suggestion that cannabis use in the brain resembles an egg being fried.

With the possibilities of these therapeutic approaches looming in the distance the important question of what should public opinion be must be asked. Cooray et. al. notes in their study that the acceptance of cannabis based drugs for any therapies may not go over as well with some people as others (2). Should it? As Scheyer et. al. notes, research into things related to cannabis has only really boomed in the past two decades (1), and on PubMed the search term cannabis produces the majority of results from 2000-present. However, as of 3/3/23, cannabis is still federally considered a schedule 1 controlled substance while codeine, an opioid frequently recreationally abused, is schedule 2.

While we are on the topic, recent data published by Raman et. al. indicates that the introduction of medical cannabis laws (MCL) and recreational cannabis laws (RCL) in certain states seems to be correlated with a decrease in non-medicinal opioid use. This publication primarily derived its data from the DEA and found that the opioid codeine is most impacted by the introduction of these laws (3).

So, should we still be looking at cannabis based drugs as a gateway or as a new way to treat certain disorders? Should we look at cannabis, RCL, and MCL less as just “drugs” and more as a possible therapeutic approach for people suffering day to day from these various disorders? If it truly helps to mitigate the symptoms for people suffering from these various disorders and offers a more affordable treatment path, should public opinion simply be disregarded surrounding cannabis based drugs? I can’t answer these questions. I’m not a spokesperson for everyone nor a politician. The only thing I can hope to do with this blog is try and depict how mindsets surrounding cannabis or cannabis based drugs seem to be shifting whether people want them to or not.


References (in order of appearance):

1. Scheyer, A., Yasmin, F., Naskar, S., & Patel, S. (2023). Endocannabinoids at the synapse and beyond: implications for neuropsychiatric disease pathophysiology and treatment. Neuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 48(1), 37–53. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-022-01438-7




2. Cooray R, Gupta V, Suphioglu C. Current Aspects of the Endocannabinoid System and Targeted THC and CBD Phytocannabinoids as Potential Therapeutics for Parkinson's and Alzheimer's Diseases: a Review. Mol Neurobiol. 2020 Nov;57(11):4878-4890. doi: 10.1007/s12035-020-02054-6. Epub 2020 Aug 19. PMID: 32813239; PMCID: PMC7515854.




3. Raman, S., Maclean, J. C., Bradford, W. D., & Drake, C. (2023). Recreational cannabis and opioid distribution. Health Economics, 32( 4), 747– 754. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.4652





Marijuanna Kills Clip:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WxJ0WZdQ2IM




Anti-Cannabis Ad Compilation:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EumbZzk2rXU

Survival of the Fittest (Sleep Edition)

 

A circadian sleep is a natural, internal cycle that regulates change in sleep and the activity that the body experiences throughout the 24 hours in a day. The Circadian Rhythm is particularly important because it serves as a clock for the brain and tells the body when to sleep based off factors such as environmental cues, especially light. The Circadian rhythms are not only in charge of sleep but also coordination of physical and mental systems throughout the body. For instance, the digestive system makes use of the normal timing of meals to produce the right amount of proteins. The circadian rhythms throughout the body are connected to a circadian pacemaker which is in the (SCN) Suprachiasmatic nucleus. At different times of the day, the clock genes in the SCN send signals throughout the body to regulate its activity. 

When the Circadian Rhythm is disrupted, it is called Circadian disruption, mainly a change in an individual’s biological timing. In the article called “Circadian disruption and human health” written by Anna B. et al, we got to learn how circadian disruption can increase the risk for the development of immune, psychiatric, neurologic, and even cardiometabolic disorders. Data shows that “populations in the US at risk for circadian disruption include the approximately 16% of adults who usually work a non-daytime schedule (11), the approximately 70% who work indoors (12), the estimated 99% affected by light pollution (13), and the growing sector of adults aged 65 and older (14)”.² This shows that there are different factors that could influence a circadian rhythm disruption, however, why some individuals are not affected by the same factors as another individual is not clear. 

For Instance, around one third of adult’s experience insomnia which is a common sleep disorder that can make it hard to fall asleep or even hard to stay awake. The genes that cause insomnia are also related to those that regulate the sleep-wake cycle in us. According to Danielle Pacheco, from the sleep foundation in her article called, “Is Insomnia Genetic” we can see that genes influence the neurotransmitters involved in circadian rhythm like serotonin, GABA, and adenosine. “Researchers began by identifying genetic markers of insomnia in fruit flies. Since then, they’ve found a large number of genetic markers in humans as well. Studies of insomnia in families, twins, and large genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have found multiple genes that are connected to insomnia”.¹ This shows how genes play a role when it comes to the level of effect of circadian disruption.

 When it comes to the example of Insomnia one can see that genetics plays a larger role in the chance of getting it over the chance of it just being stress or anxiety related. The reason some suffer from the negative effects of circadian disruption and others do not is mainly because of their genes. Just like how some people have certain genes in their DNA that make them naturally wake up early or stay up late, there are also genes in the DNA that can make others adjust to circadian disruption easier than others. An individual’s circadian rhythm can be disrupted several times due to reasons such as seasonal change, and different time zones, but since they don’t have that gene then their chances of experiencing the negative effect of the circadian disruption compared to those who do have the gene is less. More research can be done to see how one could decrease their chances of getting a sleep disorder even when they have the dominant or recessive gene that affects the neurotransmitters involved in circadian rhythm. 

 

 

References

1.    1.  Is insomnia genetic? Sleep Foundation. (2022, May 10). Retrieved March 3, 2023, from https://www.sleepfoundation.org/insomnia/is-insomnia-genetic 

2.    2.  J Clin Invest. 2021;131(19):e148286. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI148286.

 

The Neuroscience of Beauty: The Effect of Appraisal Processing on Emotion and Reward Systems

In Aleem et al.’s article, “Is Beauty in the Eye of the Beholder or an Objective Truth? A Neuroscientific Answer,” what is addressed is the idea of how beauty can be a subjective or objective experience and that it could be supported by various philosophical and psychological theories, such as the processing fluency theory. The processing fluency theory is linked to a cognitive process in which our liking of something is directly related to how easy our brains can compute something and understand it. The processing fluency theory suggests that simpler things are easier to understand as opposed to abstract concepts. This theory was emphasized in the article with the idea of how symmetry and other elements of an object such as complexity or its fluency can influence the beauty of it. A more obscure philosophical approach also reflected the idea of symmetry and how it can influence good health; therefore, symmetry can influence both external and internal beauty. Different neural circuits were mentioned in the article and how the neural circuitry of viewing something as beautiful is similar to the neural circuitry of appraisal. This is something that we can all connect to, because when we see a photogenic, Instagram-worthy plate of food, we receive visual stimuli that in turn ends up anticipatory satisfaction, which is what means by the term “we eat first with our eyes.” The integration of different stimuli and appraisal of the food is achieved by the orbital prefrontal cortex (OFC) and other supporting brain regions involved in appraisal, such as the anterior insula, and basal ganglia areas involved in reward.

What was tested in this article were the difference in responses in regards to different images, such as a spontaneous photograph, a Renaissance piece, and a person posing. Participants were then asked to describe how well-balanced the image. This could include concepts such as symmetry and how intentional the image is in (e.g. a posed picture versus a spontaneous picture). These responses were all quantified in the end and what was found were that spontaneous photographs of a person had the highest index of imbalance. What was interesting about the results was that although the Renaissance-era painting was completely intentional, it still showed a higher index of imbalance when compared to the posed photograph. This raises questions such as what contributes to the balance in an image? 

In Brown et al.’s article, “Naturalizing aesthetics: Brain areas for aesthetic appraisal across sensory modalities,” the researchers investigated appraisal networks, and they delve deeper into the processing of different valenced emotions and built off some of the concepts presented in Aleema et al.’s article such as appraisal of food and other forms that are not considered art. Brown et al. measured if there are any differences in appraisal processing between art and non-art objects. Art objects involve stimuli such as portraits and posed pictures, whereas non-art objects are ordinary and not considered to be “artistic.” Examples of non-art objects would include ordinary objects such as cell phones and houses. These are objects that are not considered to be “artistic” by nature. Therefore, the researchers used these art and non-art objects in order to determine if there are differences in appraisal processings for both objects. What the researchers found was that both art objects and non-art objects involve activation of the orbital prefrontal cortex, which suggests that general appraisal processing of objects is dependent on the orbital prefrontal cortex (OFC). Brown et al. also tested if there is a difference in brain activation between positive and negative valence emotions. What they found was that the anterior insula is responsible for processing positive valenced emotions, which is something that the researchers were not expecting. Additionally, the researchers discovered that the insula in general is notorious for processing negative valence emotions. The reason why they tested the valence of emotions is because they want to determine the connection between objection and emotional appraisal. For example, some objects can make someone feel a negatively-valenced emotion such as disgust, and these results help to understand the connection between different brain regions involved in the appraisal, specifically the OFC and anterior insula. Additionally, the researchers discovered that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is associated with positive valence and lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC) is associated with negative valence. Since the lPFC is closest to the insula, this makes sense that they both participate in processing of negative valence. With the interconnection between the PFC and insula, this highlights the relation that emotional processing has to object appraisal, which explains why we feel a certain emotion when we look at specific objects.

Some of the similarities between both studies (Aleema et al., 2019 and Brown et al., 2011) both of them came to the conclusion that both the orbital prefrontal cortex is important for appraisal processing. Additionally, both integrated how different factors can play a role in the appraisal process. Aleema et al. focused on how balance in an image can help influence activation of the orbital prefrontal cortex, while Brown et al. investigated how appraisal and emotional processing are intertwined. Some of the key differences include that in Aleema et al.’s study, their approach was more philosophical based and went into concepts such as symmetry contributes to both internal and external beauty. Also, the theory that supported their hypothesis, the processing fluency theory, suggests that simplicity contributes to greater fluency, the process of how easily something can be interpreted, and this contributes to more beauty. Brown et al. formulated their hypothesis based on the theory of appraisal (object-related) and emotional processing (outcome-related) are intertwined. The prime example that was presented was that aesthetic pleasure is object-related emotion and happiness is the outcome-related emotion. Because Brown et al. helped to set up this connection between emotion and object appraisal, they were able to determine more brain regions that are associated with emotions, such as the mPFC, lPFC, and anterior insula. Aleema et al. linked together object appraisal and anticipatory satisfaction with an emphasis on the reward system. They discovered that more beautiful objects have greater anticipatory satisfaction, which is primarily focused on regions located in the basal ganglia, such as the striatum. In summary, both of these studies show how appraisal processing can be a complex process that influences other brain circuits involved in different functions. A prime example being the orbital prefrontal cortex having an impact on both emotional processing areas (Brown et al., 2011) and areas involved in reward systems (Aleema et al., 2019). Overall, both of these papers provide insightful information on the appraisal network and how it can influence our perception of seeing beauty in an object while simultaneously being influenced by a multitude of factors, such as viewing art vs. non-art objects and symmetry in images.

Adolescents and Circadian Misalignment: Risk Factors for Metabolic Disruption

By: Amrita Rehal

In recent years, sleep disruptions and insufficient sleep have been implicated in the development of a multitude of metabolic disorders.¹ It is becoming clear that enough sleep, and well-timed sleep for that matter, are extremely important in maintaining optimal energy removal and usage from food throughout the 24-hour circadian day. As more attention is turned to disparities in sleep health amongst a variety of populations, the difficulties faced by vulnerable and marginalized populations are being illuminated. One of the most overlooked of these populations is adolescents.

The adolescent transition marks a time of great change for young people, as they undergo puberty and transition into high school, encountering numerous biological and psychological changes. One of these major changes occurs in their sleep habits.² There is a well-established two-process model of sleep regulation that involves a homeostatic Process S which depends on sleep/wake patterns and a circadian Process C that depends on the 24-hour internal clock. Both processes undergo developmental changes during adolescence, as teens experience a circadian phase delay. This means that they exhibit an evening preference that causes them to desire significantly later bed and rise times. A slowing of Process S also occurs in adolescence, causing sleep pressure to build up much slower. Sleep pressure increases as one remains awake and dissipates as one sleeps. Developmental delays to the homeostatic sleep and wake cycle results in a much later sleep onset and the newfound ability to stay awake longer in adolescence. This is because sleep pressure is not as powerful at night for adolescents.³ This biological shift, for which the reasons are not yet well understood, contributes to circadian misalignment in teens. It is defined as a mismatch between one’s sleep/wake schedule and their internal body clock timing.

Adolescents in the United States regularly experience circadian misalignment due to the extremely early high school start times being a huge constraint to their sleep. Recent media articles have come to focus upon these issues more as research in this area is becoming more recognized.⁴ Teens in the U.S. are often waking up between 5:30am and 6:30am to get to school. Although developmental delays to bed and wake times cause adolescents to prefer later sleep and wake times, they are forced have an earlier wake time than their Processes C and S would biologically initiate.² The circadian misalignment that these teens experience has been implicated in mental health problems, emotional dysregulation, poor school attendance and performance, and even physical problems such as metabolic disorders.

The early school start times of adolescents in the U.S. are contributing to circadian misalignment, leading to the metabolic disorder known as insulin resistance. Insulin resistance occurs when cells stop responding to insulin, which causes less blood glucose to be taken up into cells. This results in tonic high levels of blood glucose and excess insulin production. Type 2 diabetes eventually results when the body can no longer keep up with the insulin demands, causing obesity amongst other long-term issues, such as sleep apnea, heart disease, stroke, or heart attack. It has been established that less sleep occurring during a person’s biological night results in correlates of insulin resistance.⁵ Adolescents sleep very little during their biological night and are often awake and sitting in classrooms during it.

It remains of dire importance to examine potential treatments or interventions to improve sleep quality in adolescents. These could include policy changes to delay school start times and educational programs to improve sleep hygiene.⁴ Many great research labs are focusing on the widespread effects of ill-timed and poor sleep habits.^1,6 Hopefully, soon, policy makers and researchers can work hand-in-hand to establish better guidelines for vulnerable populations in the U.S., helping improve sleep timing for our youth so they aren’t vulnerable to metabolic disorders such as insulin resistance.

Works Cited:

(1) Fishbein, A. B., Knutson, K. L., & Zee, P. C. (2021). Circadian disruption and human health. The Journal of clinical investigation, 131(19).

(2) Crowley, S. J., Acebo, C., & Carskadon, M. A. (2007). Sleep, circadian rhythms, and delayed phase in adolescence. Sleep medicine, 8(6), 602-612.

(3) Crowley, S. J., Wolfson, A. R., Tarokh, L., & Carskadon, M. A. (2018). An update on adolescent sleep: New evidence informing the perfect storm model. Journal of adolescence, 67, 55-65.

(4) Kinney, M., & Hopkins, K. (2023, February 28). Adjusting to later school start times is good for overall Adolescent Health. Courier Journal. Retrieved March 3, 2023, from https://www.courier-journal.com/story/opinion/2023/02/28/why-adjusting-to-later-school-start-times-is-better-adolescent-health/69950023007/

(5) Simon, S. L., Behn, C. D., Cree-Green, M., Kaar, J. L., Pyle, L., Hawkins, S. M., ... & Nadeau, K. J. (2019). Too late and not enough: school year sleep duration, timing, and circadian misalignment are associated with reduced insulin sensitivity in adolescents with overweight/obesity. The Journal of pediatrics, 205, 257-264.

(6) Poe, A. R., Zhu, L., McClanahan, P. D., Szuperak, M., Anafi, R. C., Thum, A. S., ... & Kayser, M. S. (2022). Developmental emergence of sleep rhythms enables long-term memory capabilities in Drosophila. bioRxiv, 2022-02.

Sleep: The Backbone of the Optimal College Experience

Before I became a college student, I knew there were 3 things that I had to balance as a student; Academics, Social Life, and Sleep. I was told that out of the 3, only 2 could really be prioritized. Once coming and experiencing the culture of being at college, I started to become aware of how much sleep was not prioritized. Academically, we have a lot of work to do within our classes, and this causes us to stay up late to study or complete assignments. Socially, because we have work during the day, people go out at night to have fun which results in coming home late and getting worse sleep. These reasons really cause students to lack sleep, but plenty of studies show how sleep is an essential part of not only life in general but student life. In her talk, Dr. Zee mentioned that sleep is an orchestra of internal functions that ultimately is a crucial part of our health in general. Plenty of studies can back up how having a consistent circadian rhythm is essential for a thriving college student. 

Firstly, let's discuss the effects of sleep on social life. Published in September of 2022, “Psychological Correlates of Insomnia Among College Students” Mbous et al discuss the relationship between mental health and sleep disorders. The study surveyed a sample of college students who were screened for various behavioral and mental health conditions, and made correlations between these and insomnia. They reported that 26.4% of the participants had insomnia, with 41.2% and 15.8% having depression and ADHD symptoms respectively. Significantly, 78.2% of the students experiencing insomnia also had experienced depression, 9.54 times higher than students without it. For ADHD, it was 3.54 times the frequency for students with ADHD to experience insomnia compared to kids without it. The amplification of behavioral mental health issues among students with insomnia shows how important being able to get good sleep and maintaining a balanced circadian rhythm is to a student's mental health. Depression is a mental health hurdle for people trying to be more involved socially, so keeping a good circadian rhythm by trying to reduce insomnia is a step in the right direction. 

Next, let's discuss the effects of circadian rhythms on Academic Performance. In the article “Circadian Rhythms in Attention”, Valdez discusses the impact attention has on cognitive performance along with how circadian rhythms play a background role in it. Having a controlled and balanced circadian rhythm can result in optimal performance in academic-related activities. Typically, attention acts well around the afternoon, with it increasing during later afternoon stages and into part of the evening before later evening/exhaustion. He also mentions that with a shifted and consistent circadian rhythm, optimal performance can happen with consistency. This consistency with a circadian rhythm not only affects attention but other cognitive processes that can improve academic performance such as working memory and executive functioning. This article is another source that implies the importance of sleep, and how sleep is essential for putting our best foot forward academically. 

The articles I mentioned display how sleep can be a major player in optimizing a college student for the better. Discarding sleep as a college student takes us two steps backward when having a consistent circadian rhythm is only making our social lives and academic performance better. When studying for an exam or deciding to go out, choose consistency by getting good sleep.

References:

Mbous YPV, Nili M, Mohamed R, Dwibedi N. Psychosocial Correlates of Insomnia Among College Students. Prev Chronic Dis 2022;19:220060. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5888/pcd19.220060

Valdez P. Circadian Rhythms in Attention. Yale J Biol Med. 2019 Mar 25;92(1):81-92. PMID: 30923475; PMCID: PMC6430172.

The Future of Hormone Therapy

         You might have known that menopause is when a woman loses her menstrual period but did you also know about the other symptoms associated with menopause? Menopause is a routine part of life for women that occurs in their forties or fifties. After menopause, the ovaries stop producing hormones, and it has been a full year since the last menstrual period. Menopausal symptoms can be cognitive and physical in nature. This includes hot flashes, stiffness or soreness, difficulty staying asleep, and a decrease in verbal memory. Although these symptoms are not experienced by all women, they can be very bothersome for some. So how can these symptoms be mediated in women who experience them extensively?

        In the article, Hormone therapy for first-line management of menopausal symptoms: Practical recommendations, Palacios et al. examine the history of hormone therapy use in regard to menopausal symptoms, discuss the current state of hormone therapy, and provide recommendations on hormone therapy going forward. Prior to the early 2000s, particularly during the ‘80s and ‘90s, hormone therapy use was at a high. However, a study in the early 2000s showed possible adverse side effects, including stroke and an escalated risk of breast cancer. This caused a reluctance in physicians to treat symptoms with hormone therapy because they believed the risks outweighed the benefits. Consequently, the use of hormone therapy fell dramatically in subsequent years.

Recent studies, however, have shown that the study from the early 2000s may not have been entirely accurate in presenting the risk factors associated with hormone therapy. Palacios et al. propose that hormone therapy, in conjunction with other measures such as the termination of smoking and increasing physical activity in women who present moderate to severe symptoms would work best to prevent chronic conditions associated with menopause. In addition, pre-existing conditions, such as diabetes and obesity, should also be taken into account when considering hormone therapy in order to properly assess the risk-to-benefit ratio. 

In the article, Perimenopausal use of hormone therapy is associated with enhanced memory and hippocampal function later in life, Maki et al explored the effect of hormone therapy on verbal memory in postmenopausal women. Half of the women had started hormone therapy in perimenopause and the other half had never used hormone therapy. The researchers discovered that the women who had started hormone therapy at the perimenopausal stage performed better on the verbal memory task. These women also showed increased activation in the left hippocampus, which is associated with better memory performance. The study supported the hypothesis that there is a critical time frame when it comes to initiating hormone therapy.

Hopefully, further studies can shed more light on how to treat menopausal symptoms and the underlying brain mechanisms associated with hormone therapy use.

References:
1. Palacios S, Stevenson JC, Schaudig K, Lukasiewicz M, Graziottin A. Hormone therapy for first-line management of menopausal symptoms: Practical recommendations. Women’s Health. 2019;15. doi:10.1177/1745506519864009

2. Maki PM, Dennerstein L, Clark M, Guthrie J, LaMontagne P, Fornelli D, Little D, Henderson VW, Resnick SM. Perimenopausal use of hormone therapy is associated with enhanced memory and hippocampal function later in life. Brain Res. 2011 Mar 16;1379:232-43. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.11.030.

Is it a one way flight to the Arctic, or land of Circadian Disruption?

    It may seem like the easiest and most effortless thing, but falling asleep involves a lot more than just closing your eyes and resting your head on a pillow. Catching some z's requires a harmony between our body's internal systems and our external environment. Our body's internal systems work at a molecular level and fluctuate throughout the day. The internal factors are primarily composed of an interplay of hormones such as cortisol and melatonin. The external or environmental factors consist of light, temperature, and sound as well as behavioral factors such as feeding and activity. Circadian disruption occurs when there is a hindrance to the body's biological timing. This can occur at the molecular level with disturbances to rhythms in cells, or it can be attributed to the misalignment of behavioral patterns with environmental changes. The balance between our body's internal systems and external environment is processed in the suprachiasmatic nucleus located in the hypothalamus. The suprachiasmatic nucleus is referred to as the "master clock" as it regulates most of the body's circadian rhythms. It is important to note that the SCN initiates a 24 hour rhythm that is synchronized to exposure to sunlight. When light reaches the retina, the optic nerve delivers the light signal to the SCN which then activates the pineal gland, which is responsible for secreting melatonin. Melatonin is a hormone produced in response to darkness which regulates the body's internal clock. Being exposed to light at night can hinder melatonin production, thus disturbing the body's circadian rhythm.

    Why is sleep so important? Getting good quality sleep improves health and brain function as well as mood. In the Article titled Circadian disruption and human health by Phyllis C. Zee, the impact of disrupted circadian rhythms on cardio-metabolic as well as neuropsychiatric disorders is discussed. It is noted that circadian disruption occurs at multiple organizational levels and involves a bidirectional relationship. This implies that disruption in circadian rhythms can increase the severity of a disease, while it is also possible that certain diseases impair the body's circadian rhythm. The article states that when circadian rhythms are disrupted, it can have serious repercussions on mental as well as physical health. The possible negative implications of circadian disruption include but are not limited to sleep-wake disorders, psychiatric disorders, neurological disorders, metabolic disorders, and cardiovascular disorders. 

    We have discussed why getting good sleep is important, as well as how harmful circadian disruption can be for mental and physical health. We have also discussed how our body's 24 hour circadian rhythms are closely synchronized with light exposure, meaning the proper timing and duration of exposure to light is critical in ensuring a good quality sleep. If we know that exposure to light during the day and darkness at night is what our body's need to get good sleep, what happens if you live somewhere where there are months of darkness followed by months of constant sunlight? 

    The article titled An exploratory study examining the associations between sunlight exposure, sleep behaviours and sleep outcomes during an Arctic summer by Margaret M. Lubas tackles this exact question. This article aims to investigate the relationship between light exposure, sleep outcomes, and living in the Arctic. This article states that being exposed to light in the late afternoon can set back the internal clock, while exposure to light in the morning can boost circadian rhythms. Considering the importance of light as a regulatory factor in the circadian system, living in an environment that undergoes extreme changes in day length depending on the season presents an impediment to the body's circadian rhythm. The findings of the study presented in this article indicated a high occurrence of poor sleep, an increase in sleep onset latency, and prevalent use of sleeping aids among the sample of Arctic workers throughout the period of increased sunlight during the summer. Based on the daily measures collected, the study suggested that as the length of daylight exposure increased, poor sleep quality simultaneously increased, while sleep duration also decreased. These findings support previous studies regarding sleep disturbances in the Arctic. 

    Considering the findings of this study on the Arctic as well as what we know about the importance of proper daylight exposure for regulating the body's circadian rhythm, additional evidence-based interventions would be beneficial in improving sleep quality for those who live in the Arctic. 

References: 

Fishbein, Anna B., et al. “Circadian Disruption and Human Health.” Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 131, no. 19, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1172/jci148286.

Lubas, Margaret M., et al. “An Exploratory Study Examining the Associations between Sunlight Exposure, Sleep Behaviours and Sleep Outcomes during an Arctic Summer.” International Journal of Circumpolar Health, vol. 78, no. 1, 2019, p. 1574698., https://doi.org/10.1080/22423982.2019.1574698.