Why is understanding Breathing so Important?

    While many of us, if not all (I hope), are familiar with the importance of breathing, the true significance lies in understanding its mechanics. Imagine the potential if we could decipher the intricate relationship breathing has with our emotions or physical state. This knowledge could be harnessed to our advantage, particularly in high-stress situations where taking deeper, slower breaths could lead to better decisions. The mystery of breathing, while not new, remains a fascinating frontier waiting to be fully understood. 

    The research article " Facing the Challenge of Mammalian Neural Microcircuits: Taking a Few Breaths May Help" delves into the preBötC neuron circuits in the brainstem and their interaction with neuronal microcircuits. Dr. Jordan J. Skach and his colleagues have embarked on a journey to investigate the dynamic and molecular interaction of the preBötC neuron with the network. This is not just interesting, but also inspiring, as it paves the way for understanding the effectiveness of technology such as pacemakers and opens up new strategies to comprehend other microcircuits.

    Similar to the research article "The hypoxic respiratory response of the pre-Bötzinger complex," it explores the relationship between the preBötC biphasic response to acute hypoxia leading to the observation at a cellular level. By understanding this system with different oxygen levels, we can further understand the function of the preBötC neuron. Through this research, we can further understand hypoxic-related pathologies like sleep apnea based on the rhythmic controls within these neural mechanisms. 

    Suppose we can understand how the preBötC neuron interacts within a microcircuit. This will be the pathway to understanding other microcircuits and their interactions. If breathing deeper can make our body function efficiently under stress, allowing us to think better, then this is something we can remember next time we have an important test!

Reference

Feldman, J. L., & Kam, K. (2014). Facing the challenge of mammalian neural microcircuits: Taking a Few Breaths May Help. The Journal of Physiology, 593(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2014.277632

Khalilpour, J., Soltani Zangbar, H., Alipour, M. R., & Shahabi, P. (2024). The hypoxic respiratory response of the pre-Bötzinger complex. Heliyon, 10, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34491

Racial Representation, Cognitive Inhibition, and ADHD: Emotional Regulation in Adolescents

 Racial Representation, Cognitive Inhibition, and ADHD: Emotional Regulation in Adolescents

Cognitive and emotional regulation are important in understanding the challenges at hand of adolescence, where things such as frustrations and environmental factors can influence performance and behavior. These factors are especially important in understanding how early neuropsychological issues shape later outcomes in terms of academic achievement and behavioral health. 

 

In a study by Hudac et al. (2022), the authors explore how cognitive inhibition is affected by frustration in adolescent athletes. Using mobile EEG technology, the study focuses on how frustration impairs cognitive functioning in athletes, specifically in moments of stress or underperformance. They found that adolescents, particularly those experiencing frustration, showed significant difficulty with cognitive inhibition, a core component of executive function. The study discusses how emotional triggers, such as frustration, worsen deficits in cognitive abilities like inhibition, which are essential for regulating behavior and making decisions. Particularly, the study also introduces the influence of racial representation in sports, showing that underrepresented athletes may experience heightened emotional regulation problems because of the lack of diverse role models in their field. These findings suggest that frustration in sports settings not only impairs cognitive performance but may also have more pronounced effects for individuals who lack representation in their field.

            

The interaction that occurs between cognitive inhibition and emotional regulation is further explored in a study by Sjöwall et al. (2017), which investigates how early neuropsychological deficits predict ADHD symptoms and academic achievement in later adolescence. The research found that deficits in cognitive functions such as inhibition and emotional regulation in preschool children are strong predictors of ADHD symptoms and academic struggles during adolescence. These findings are especially significant when considering Hudac et al.’s (2022) results, which suggest that frustration exacerbates cognitive inhibition difficulties. For children with early neuropsychological deficits, these emotional and cognitive challenges are likely to build up over time, which contributes to the development of ADHD symptoms and academic underachievement, as shown by Sjöwall et al. (2017). The connection found between early inhibition deficits and long-term ADHD symptoms supports the idea from the authors that emotional regulation difficulties, whether being due to frustration, lack of representation, or other external factors, can significantly affect academic and behavioral outcomes.

 

Considering these points, the studies highlight the importance of addressing emotional regulation and cognitive inhibition early in life. Hudac et al. (2022) provide an insightful perspective on how frustration, specifically in underrepresented groups, can harm cognitive performance, while Sjöwall et al. (2017) show that early deficits in these same cognitive functions predict long-term academic and behavioral challenges. Both of the studies emphasize the significant role of emotional regulation in cognitive functioning, saying that interventions that are aimed at improving emotional control and supporting diverse representation could help moderate the development of ADHD symptoms and improve academic outcomes.

 

 

References

Hudac, C. M., Wallace, J. S., Ward, V. R., Friedman, N. R., Delfin, D., & Newman, S. D. (2022). Dynamic cognitive inhibition in the context of frustration: Increasing racial representation of adolescent athletes using mobile community-engaged EEG methods. Frontiers in Neurology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2022.918075

Sjöwall, D., Bohlin, G., Rydell, A.-M., & Thorell, L. B. (2017). Neuropsychological deficits in preschool as predictors of ADHD symptoms and academic achievement in late adolescence. Child Neuropsychology, 23(1), 111–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2015.1063595

Polarization in Social Media

 The research article “Social groups and polarization of aesthetic values from symmetry and complexity” implements statistical analysis to determine whether people fall into groups based on the aesthetic values of symmetry and complexity. The researchers found that polarization occurred, in which participants fell into islands of aesthetic preference. This pattern follows the formation of social groups based on different sets of values. It is natural and evolutionary advantageous for people to conform to social norms, as it allows them to experience community and support. In addition, people often adjust preferences to a greater extent to align with others in close social circles with them. Dr. Grzywacz’s lecture also added the factor of expert opinion, which resulted in a pattern in which participants shifted their aesthetic responses to more closely align with an expert. 

            This research serves as an example of herd mentality, in which people tended to fall into islands rather than expressing unique, individual preferences. This is a pattern of social behavior that may seem familiar across many aspects of society: present in religion, politics, sports, and organizations that all come together for shared interests. An important aspect of this grouping or herd mentality is that it is polarizing, meaning that distinct groups form based on different values or preferences. In the article, personality did not have significant effects on placement into an island, or social group. This could allude to the fact that despite individual characteristics that makeup our person, people tend to exhibit behaviors of social conformity. However, other cultural aspects or variables could lead to effects on group polarization. Dr. Grzywacz and collaborators found that gender led to significant difference in island placement. So, while people did not have an aesthetic preference based on their personality, their gender was a significant predictor of which island they would fall into. 

            Polarization, as seen in today’s society, is largely shaped by the modern technological era we live in. Social media is a driving force in the world, providing people with means of information, communication, and entertainment. The social media platforms used by billions of people daily are driven by algorithms. The Scientific American article “Social Media Algorithms Warp How People Learn from Each Other” outlines how algorithms boost information that is “prestigious” or “in-group.” When considering Dr. Grzywacz’s research, the effects of prestige and in-group information can be considered driving factors towards polarization. People looking for social acceptance or belonging will tend to agree more with information similar to what they or those close to them believe, and they will also alter their beliefs to match those considered reliable experts. The prestige factor of social media content becomes difficult to consider due to the lack of reliable sourcing often found in social media sources, yet users may not be able to identify misinformation and still allow it to sway their preferences. A February 2024 article from The Guardian entitled “Social media algorithms ‘amplifying misogynistic content’ ” finds that young men are especially vulnerable to radicalization on popular social media platform TikTok, whose algorithm pushed four times as much misogynistic content within five days of creating an account with its gender identity set as male. This could have large implications when considering the significant difference in gender effects on polarization in aesthetic values, suggesting that gender socialization plays a role in deciding social groups and values. 

References

Brady, W., FF4BB2BC-B3A4-4FBD-B8A4EE080E321552, /author/the-Conversation-Us/, 4SGwgVplZn78AUrz0vAX2R, US, T. C., The-Conversation-Us, & Curated by professional editors, T. C. offers informed commentary and debate on the issues affecting our world. (2024, February 20). Social media algorithms warp how people learn from each other. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/social-media-algorithms-warp-how-people-learn-from-each-other/

 Weale, S. (2024, February 6). Social media algorithms “amplifying misogynistic content.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/media/2024/feb/06/social-media-algorithms-amplifying-misogynistic-content

Mather, K.B., Aleem, H., Rhee, Y. et al. Social groups and polarization of aesthetic values from symmetry and complexity. Sci Rep 13, 21507 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-47835-w

Dolphins, Drugs, Stress, and Social Interaction Behaviors

Though the oceans are revered for their beauty and diversity of sealife, unfortunately, sea creatures aren’t immune to stresses and drug exposure. Off the Gulf of Mexico, several drugs, like fentanyl, were detected in the blubber tissues of many dolphins, raising concern for the health of the oceans (Jacobo). Researchers conducted mass spectrometry tests on 89 dolphin tissues, 83 of them from live dolphins, and all of the samples had positive results for drugs with fentanyl being the most prevalent in 24 dolphins. Additionally, these dolphin samples came from varying years, suggesting that the drugs in the Gulf of Mexico waterways may have been around for nearly a decade (Jacobo). However, dolphins don’t drink water for hydration; they receive hydration from consuming prey, implying that the dolphins aren’t the only sea creatures contaminated by the drugs in the water. Given this information, drug pollution in the water may have been a longstanding and widespread issue, adding to the many stressors that sealife currently faces (Jacobo). Sea creatures already have to deal with oil spills, noise pollution, chemical spills, vessel traffic, algal blooms, and environmental destruction for tourism on top of this drug pollution issue. No research has been done to elucidate the long-term effects of drugs on sea creatures, and new research on the impact of human-caused stressors on sealife involving the drug stressor is needed to aid ocean conservation efforts (Jacobo).

The drug stressor and other human-caused stressors dolphins and other sea creatures face generates an interesting conversation with the research done by Dr. Sodhi and her colleagues. In their study “Deficits of Hippocampal RNA Editing and Social Interaction Resulting from Prenatal Stress are Mitigated by Clozapine,” Dr. Sodhi and her fellow researchers sought to explain the relationship between neurological disorders and prenatal stress that affect social behavior (Bristow et al.). They hypothesized that social interaction deficits in male mice birthed from mothers who were stressed in the prenatal stage were due to RNA editing. They also hypothesized that antipsychotic drug treatment could alleviate those deficits (Bristow et al.). Dr. Sodhi and her colleagues conducted this research as it is known that impaired brain development is a result of psychological distress during pregnancy, which could lead to brain disorders such as schizophrenia and autism. For the results, Dr. Sodhi and her fellow researchers found that the clozapine drug treatment mitigated the behavioral defects of the mice offspring from prenatal-stressed mothers (Bristow et al.).

Dr. Sodhi’s research highlights a possible new avenue for marine researchers to explore: the effects of drug stressors on dolphins and other sea life. In her research with her colleagues, Dr. Sodhi showed how prenatal stress in mice mothers resulted in socially deficient mice offspring (Bristow et al.). While it may be a challenge to replicate, it would be beneficial for marine research to know how human-caused stressors affect sea life developmentally, especially drug stressors on prenatal development. Information that could be gleaned from such research would also be helpful for ocean conservation efforts. It would also be interesting to see further research elucidate how the molecular processes in the sea creatures’ brains were affected by the pollution and stressors around them. While Dr. Sodhi’s research may not completely apply to the dolphins and sea creatures undergoing drug pollution and other human-caused stressors, it is interesting to connect this scientific research to a real-world issue.

Bristow, Greg C., et al. “Deficits of Hippocampal RNA Editing and Social Interaction Resulting

from Prenatal Stress are Mitigated by Clozapine.” bioRxiv, 2 Feb. 2021,

https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.02.02.429408. 

Jacobo, Julia. “Several Drugs, Including Fentanyl, Found in Bottlenose Dolphins in Gulf of 

Mexico, Scientists Say.” ABC News, ABC News Network, 6 Dec. 2024, 

abcnews.go.com/International/drugs-including-fentanyl-found-bottleneck-dolphins-gulf-

mexico/story?id=116523978.

“Why are birds smart?”

 Dr. Dianno Marone presented a compelling paper questioning why birds are capable of complex cognition. Corvids and parrots possess very light brains, some as light as one gram, and no isocortex, so scientists would not have predicted their cognitive abilities being comparable to apes. Over the years, birds have been regarded as creatures of simple instincts, only worried about finding worms and building nests. However, recent research challenges this view, showing that certain bird species possess remarkable cognitive abilities that suggest a level of intelligence that far exceeds expectations. These abilities—like problem-solving, social learning, and even tool use—have led scientists to reconsider the mental capacities of these once seemingly simple creatures.

It has been challenging for scientists to understand what aspect of the bird brian allows for higher cognitive functioning. Bird brains are seemingly mostly made up of homogenous nuclear clusters, which would suggest limited cognition, but it has been shown that birds have a brain area that serves as a prefrontal cortex-like area. 

Birds such as crows, ravens, and parrots have been shown to exhibit problem-solving skills that rival those of primates. In a groundbreaking study by Emil M. P. Emery and Nicola S. Clayton (2004), published in Science, demonstrates how Eurasian jays plan for future needs, an ability previously believed to be exclusive to humans and apes. Their research showed that these birds can store away food in preparation for future scarcity and even engage in deceptive behavior to protect their resources. Scientists have begun to look more into anatomical and cognitive similarities to search for an answer to their intellect. 

One of the reasons why we are so surprised by birds' intelligence is rooted in our own cognitive biases. Humans tend to anthropomorphize animals, attributing to them human-like qualities that may not be applicable. This inclination often leads us to underestimate the mental capacity of species whose behaviors we fail to understand. Moreover, there is a misconception that intelligence is directly linked to brain size or structure. Birds have relatively small brains compared to mammals, but studies, like those of cognitive ethologist Alex Kacelnik, show that certain bird species, particularly crows, have highly developed neural structures that enable complex thinking. The compactness of the bird brain doesn’t limit its intellectual capacity but rather allows for highly efficient neural processing.

Work Cited

Emery, E. M. P., & Clayton, N. S. (2004). The mentality of crows: Convergent evolution of intelligence in corvids and apes. Science, 306(5703), 1903-1907.

Güntürkün O, Pusch R, Rose J. Why birds are smart. Trends Cogn Sci. 2024 Mar;28(3):197-209. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2023.11.002. Epub 2023 Dec 13. PMID: 38097447; PMCID: PMC10940863.

The Social and Psychological Implications of 'Pretty Privilege'

     Unless you are a twin, chances are you possess your own unique combination of physical characteristics. In addition to this, you may have developed your own sense of style or know which way to present as the most aesthetically pleasing for yourself. As people are drawn to many different combinations of aesthetics and physical features, one may wonder, what are the implications of these preferences on society? And where do these preferences come from? Research suggests that traits we may find pleasing depend heavily on the context of one's cultural environment as well as on biological processes. Depending on if someone displays conventionally attractive traits given the context in which they are desired, this person may experience preferential treatment leading to them being presented with more opportunities and positive assumptions about their character. This social phenomenon deemed 'pretty privilege' is discussed within a psychology magazine article titled "What Is the Psychology of Pretty Privilege?" as written by the Psychologs admin. In this article, details on the psychological mechanisms providing the social effect of 'pretty priviledge' are given. 

It is suggested that this bias can come from evolutionary desires: for example, physical fitness is something considered attractive in organisms across all ecosystems in choosing a mate as it allows for the production of healthy offspring. Humans are no different in this sense. This can be seen throughout history as societies plagued with food scarcity may have seen biological markers such as higher body fat percentage to be more desirable because it means that person may have an abundance of food resources and/or can survive longer without food. In addition to this, it has been revealed that facial symmetry and body ratio proportions also show a pattern in attraction. According to an article titled "The Science Behind Why We Find Certain People Attractive" by Dina Cheney, "research has also shown straight men prefer women with a waist-to-hip ratio of about 70%" and this is justified by the fact that most women who vary from that percentage are more likely to have issues such as pregnancy loss and may be susceptible to certain diseases and problems with fertility. However, this article does note that this finding is based on relatively small groups of mainly white people so it doesn't address the possible disparities between people of other races or represent the overall population. This is important to understand as within social context, the different expression of race and any prejudices surrounding it may also be a deciding factor in whether one is considered to have 'pretty privilege' and the levels in which they may experience it.

This conversation can also be connected to research on social polarization detailing that aesthetic preferences are dependent on two visual variables: symmetry and complexity. This study, titled "Social groups and polarization of aesthetic values from symmetry and complexity" as presented by Norberto M. Grzywacz (et al.) originally hypothesized that most people prefer images with high symmetry and low complexity. This was tested through using a method in which participants were given a range of images to assess, created algorithmically to vary in levels of symmetry and complexity. Participants then rated which images they preferred most on a scale of 1-10. The results of this experiment didn't support their original hypothesis, with the finding being that most subjects formed two distinct "islands" of preference. One island consisted of images that were high symmetry, regardless of complexity and the other that showed preference for low-complexity, regardless of symmetry. The formation of these islands also seemed to be influenced by gender as well. In addition to this, there were also a few people who didn't belong to either island, and these are people who mentioned having a higher art exposure.

These results may suggest that even though there may be biological reasons for why people prefer certain visual traits, this also socially influenced by the environment one may be accustomed to. This variability in experiences and preferences can explain why the applied bias of 'pretty privilege' may not adhere to a monolithic standard throughout the world's population as a whole, and is instead dependent on differing subsets of society.

References

Cheney Dina, Hallett Cristina (2019). "The Science Behind 

Why We Find Certain People Attractive". Mindbodygreen, https://www.mindbodygreen.com/articles/science-   behind-why-we-find-certain-people-attractive?srsltid=AfmBOoprXKiNS0C8EpVIm9l9N1ENoJkBRYRcL9lkdo6_aaUNXyd_q8ca 

Mather, K. B., Aleem, H., Rhee, Y., & Grzywacz, N. M. (2023). Social groups and polarization of 

aesthetic values from symmetry and complexity. Scientific Reports, 13, Article 21507. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-47835-w 

Psychologs admin (2023). "What Is the Psychology of Pretty Privilege?" 

Psychologs, https://www.psychologs.com/what-is-the-psychology-of-pretty-privilege/#:~:text=From%20an%20evolutionary%20standpoint%2C%20humans,the%20form%20of%20pretty%20privilege.  

Increasing Racial Representation of adolescent athletes.

 

According to an article CNN Health Only 5.7% of US doctors are Black, and experts warn the shortage harms public health Seun Adebagbo quoted that

“black people face persistent disparities in health care and health outcomes. These include higher uninsured rates, being more likely to go without care due to cost, and worse reported health status Their life expectancy is nearly five years shorter compared to white people”.

So, first and foremost I just want to thank the researchers for doing this study because as a African American and also being a member in the African American community I see consciously the disadvantages and under representation when it comes to the African American community and health. With the way things are going in the world I believe that shedding light on these disparities has never been more important.

In this study researchers looked at how negative emotions, like frustration, affect a brain function called cognitive inhibition. Cognitive inhibition is important for controlling behavior, regulating mood, and influences decision making.  Researchers focused on adolescent athletes, particularly black athletes, because black individuals are underrepresented in brain health studies, even though they are heavily involved in sports. For the study the researchers used a brain monitoring method called (EEG) to study how frustration impacts brain responses in adolescent athletes during preseason (before contact sports) and postseason.

They found that a specific brain signal called the N2 component showed changes during frustration, but the effects were weaker after the season ended. Over time, during frustration, brain responses became less intense, showing how emotions dynamically interfere with cognitive inhibition.

Some questions for the future could be

Are there cultural or environmental factors that influence how athletes from different racial backgrounds respond to frustration or brain injury?

Could findings from this study help in designing sport-related protocols to better protect mental and emotional health in black communties?

The Role of Working Memory in Soccer: Beyond Talent and Practice

Soccer is one of the most popular sports in the world. There are many legendary soccer players throughout history, like Pelé, to modern legends, like Messi. When looking at their careers, one may ask, how did they get there? Was it based on talent? Genetics? Dedication to the craft? Or a mix of all the above?

Many studies have been conducted to explore various aspects of sports and the brain's involvement. In the field of sports science, these studies have led to develop various theories. One theory in this field of study is the circumvention hypothesis. This hypothesis is based on the idea of disciplined practice. An athlete can greatly improve their decision-making skills during the game through practice. After practicing the same thing repeatedly, the technique becomes second nature. Once the technique becomes second nature, players can use it during the game instinctively, without needing to think about how to execute it.

The research done by Dr. Glavaš, presented in their 2023 research article The role of working memory capacity in soccer tactical decision making at different levels of expertise, underscores the importance of working memory capacity (WMC) in tactical decision-making in soccer, providing evidence that cognitive abilities contribute to excelling in sports. The study evaluated professional, amateur, and recreational soccer players. The findings show that while professionals exhibited superior speed and accuracy due to extensive practice, WMC independently predicted better decision-making across all expertise levels. Notably, WMC remained a significant factor even for professionals, contradicting the circumvention hypothesis. Using dynamic tasks with real-game video clips and auditory distractions, the researchers demonstrated that WMC enhances tactical adaptability and accuracy in different unpredictable scenarios. These findings strengthen the theory that deliberate practice alone cannot fully account for expert performance. Cognitive capabilities like WMC play an integral role, furthering the argument that expertise arises from the interplay of learned skills and inherent cognitive abilities.

In the research article, Controlling the Flow of Distracting Information in Working Memory, by Dr. Vogel and colleagues investigate how the visual working memory (WM) manages relevant verses irrelevant information. Vogel and colleagues looked at WM from the lens of the mechanism of attention capture and suppression. There are two parts of attention capture and suppression: spatial capture and item-based capture. Electroencephalography (EEG) were used on participants while doing working memory tasks that involved both task-relevant and task-irrelevant distractors. Analyzing EEG markers helped assess spatial attention and item-based representation were affected by the distractors in each task condition. From the two experiments performed the study resulted in a more specific understanding of the brain filters and prioritizes information in the WM. Based on the research done by Dr. Vogel, one can conclude that spatial capture is a crucial factor of athlete’s performance on the soccer field. While playing on the soccer field it is paramount to know where your teammates are and where the opposing team players are. Thus, being attentive to the player’s spatial surroundings informs the player in how to make the next best play. These factors are constantly changing and are being held within the players active WM. Consequently, WMC is essential and predictive of an athlete’s skill beyond how much they practice. Furthermore, for the athletes, it is learning how to ignore the auditory and visual distractions of the fans on the sidelines during the game is crucial. Thus, this is where the theory of item-based capture is important. That an athlete who can ignore the visuals of the fans, which can be distracting, will perform better than those who find it hard to ignore the visuals of the fans. 

From these studies one can conclude the importance of knowing the mechanism of WM. Understanding WM and its components not only gives us more information about our own brains, but also how one can possibly work to improve their WM to be successful in what they want to accomplish.

Works Cited:

Glavaš, D., Pandžić, M., & Domijan, D. (2023). The role of working memory capacity in soccer tactical decision making at different levels of expertise. Cognitive research: principles and implications, 8(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-023-00473-2

Hakim, N., Feldmann-Wüstefeld, T., Awh, E., Vogel, E. (2021). Controlling the Flow of Distracting Information in Working Memory, Cerebral Cortex, Volume 31, Issue 7, July 2021, Pages 3323–3337.  https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhab013

Inequity in the Representation of Minority Groups in EEG Research

Within neuroscience, noninvasive imaging techniques have long been employed to measure the brain's function and activity. Among these, EEG has emerged as a strong candidate for use in behavioral and affective studies to explore questions of brain activity and development in adults and infants. EEG is an effective tool for measuring characteristics of cognition such as arousal, memory, emotional reactions, etc. However, recently, questions have been raised regarding systemic and racial biases through this technique's use; inadvertent exclusion of particular minority populations has resulted from limitations imposed on EEG’s compatibility with specific hair types/styles. This exclusion had unarguably created biases and limitations when generalizing findings through EEG methodology. Hudac et al.’s (2024) paper explores this exclusion of African-American representation in existing literature. It explores obstacles facing the issue of minority exclusion not just from EEG research but more comprehensively. I will expand upon the ideas from Hudac et al.’s (2024) paper using a comprehensive review from Choy et al. (2021) to further bolster these problems to achieve inclusive EEG research.

African Americans in the US have long faced inequity in receiving appropriate medical care, particularly in the context of head injuries. Care of this type is often lacking in socioeconomically disadvantaged communities. As African-American individuals are disproportionately more likely to live in these communities, they are disproportionately more likely to experience health inequities regarding injury of this type. Hudac et al.’s (2024) paper sought to address this issue of African-American representation in the existing scientific literature, particularly in the context of head injury. The need for a study of this type is urgent, as the prevalence of African-American adolescent athletes is estimated to be between 46% and 64%. Despite this, passive recruitment strategies, such as fliers, struggles with access to transportation, etc., have plagued the inclusivity of EEG research and decreased the generalizability of findings. Additionally, EEG equipment is not equipped for African-American hair types. EEG requires a close connection between the electrode and the scalp to produce consistent, reliable readings, and these systems were not designed to accommodate coarse hair, which pushes back against the electrode. Ultimately, Hudac et al.’s (2024) paper aimed to describe new methodologies and to guide and provide recommendations to improve the diversity of EEG study participation.

These proposed methodologies were rooted in connecting the lab with the surrounding communities. The researchers built relationships with high school trainers, coaches, administrators, parents, and athletes involved in high school football programs throughout Alabama. The researchers made bi-weekly visits to schools, attended football games, and engaged with the community. Eventually, prospective participants were shown a demonstration of the EEG and then allowed to volunteer for the study. A key characteristic of this community engagement focus was the mobility allowed by the portable EEG system used; they emphasize that this mobile testing, combined with methods to engage within the community, allows the possibility of improving the representation of minority groups in scientific studies. The schools identified by the researchers that were predominantly African-American commonly lack access to healthcare professionals, opportunities to learn about brain injuries, and the diagnostic tools necessary for concussion testing. They posit that this inequity is the result of historical systemic racism and that poverty disproportionately affects African-American communities. This has shaped downstream research studies, contributing to the marginalization of communities and their underrepresentedness in research studies. These effects spill into disparities such as diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes of head injuries and, ultimately, the systemic barrier that has excluded African-American individuals from research and has created significant gaps in the existing literature. Hudac et al.’s (2024) paper highlights the benefits of diversifying research through methods such as portable EEG and mitigation of passive recruitment while underscoring the need for further methodological adaptations to account for coarse and curly hairstyles (Hudac et al., 2024).

Building upon this, Choy et al. (2021) explored the neuroscience EEG literature between September and October 2019, returning 81 articles. Only five of these explicitly reported having a sample with African-American participants, and even so, it was unclear if these participants' data were included in the final analyses. Choy also explores the effect of hairstyles, as analyzed by Hudac et al. (2024). They found common themes of certain hairstyles worn predominantly by African Americans adversely affecting the quality of the EEG data collected. They found that hair types characterized as curly or coiled can be formed into different hairstyles (i.e., cornrows, braids) that may affect reliable EEG data collection. Another characteristic of African-American hair that affects its conductance properties is the random reversals and directions commonly seen. Compared to Asian and Caucasian hair, African hair appears less likely to absorb liquid, a key factor in a wet EEG net application. These understandings align with Hudac et al.’s (2024) article and highlight the inequitable effects of EEG methodology, highlighting an urgent need for greater inclusionary measures. 

Ultimately, understanding these two papers highlights a primary struggle currently facing the EEG literature. EEG researchers cannot find an appropriate method to retain the data collected from African-American American participants. The varying characteristics of African-American hair have proven that specific research methodologies have commonly been devised with the WEIRD sample in mind. The community of scientific researchers has an urgent responsibility to increase the diversity in EEG research and make the findings of their studies more applicable and generalizable; doing so benefits the accuracy of appropriate diagnoses and treatments for underrepresented groups and increases the accuracy of EEG studies' findings.

Works Cited

Choy, T., Baker, E., & Stavropoulos, K. (2021). Systemic Racism in EEG Research: Considerations and Potential solutions. Affective Science, 3(1), 14–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-021-00050-0

Hudac, C. M., Wallace, J. S., Ward, V. R., Friedman, N. R., Delfin, D., & Newman, S. D. (2022). Dynamic cognitive inhibition in the context of frustration: Increasing racial representation of adolescent athletes using mobile community-engaged EEG methods. Frontiers in Neurology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2022.918075

 

Friday Night Lights: A Deeper Look into Football Players' Safety

Concerns about injuries sustained during tackle football are growing among parents nationwide. Having grown up with a football coach for a dad, I spent countless hours in stadiums immersed in the sport. Now, with my younger brothers playing high school football, I find myself as a neuroscience student wondering about the long-term impact of such an intense sport on their developing brains. 

The paper titled Dynamic Cognitive Inhibition in the Context of Frustration: Increasing Racial Representation of Adolescent Athletes Using Mobile Community-Engaged EEG Methods, presented by Dr. Cailin Hudac explored changes in cognitive inhibition after concussive events by monitoring changes in the brain’s N2 component using EEG. The study also addresses the exclusion of black adolescents in neuroscience research reporting that EEG procedures are often not inclusive. They reported that the amplitude of the N2 component decreased during frustration and that athletes with a history of concussion showed weaker responses to frustration, which aligns with reduced cognitive inhibition. This study identified that concussions could lead to lasting effects on cognitive inhibition which emphasizes education for athletes, coaches, and parents alike when it comes to the risks of tackle football. 

A news article titled Concussions Slow Brain Activity in High School Football Players reports that high school football players who experienced a concussion exhibited a “slowing” of their aperiodic brain activity in comparison to players who did not suffer a concussion. It was noted that this research was being reported at the Radiological Society of North America and is still early. Reports like this are influencing states to start implementing rules that football players should take time off to fully recover from their concussions before returning to the game.

Both of these resources highlight the critical importance of prioritizing the health of athletes. Adolescents who are navigating vital stages of physical and mental development should put their health before anything else.

References

Concussions slow brain activity of high school football players. (2024). Retrieved from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/11/241127004157.htm

Hudac, C. M., Wallace, J. S., Ward, V. R., Friedman, N. R., Delfin, D., & Newman, S. D. (2022). Dynamic cognitive inhibition in the context of frustration: Increasing racial representation of adolescent athletes using mobile community-engaged EEG methods. Frontiers in Neurology, 13. doi:10.3389/fneur.2022.918075

From Human Vision to Machine Learning: Harnessing the Power of Abstract Shape Representation

Imagine discerning a world where objects and shapes exist not merely as concretely defined entities but rather as abstract, flowing contours. For the human visual system, this abstract understanding of shapes is an imperative necessity for survival while also being a very captivating topic in the realm of neuroscience. However, the full extent of the neural mechanisms underlying this alluring capability continue to remain in mystery. Yet, recent advances in the field of neuroscience are beginning to shed light on how we represent and even process shapes, ultimately revealing a multitude of intriguing insights with far reaching implications in regards to neurorehabilitation and even artificial intelligence. As the realms of computational modeling and neuroscience continue to blend heavily during the “golden age of AI”, neuroscientists are hard at work attempting to unravel just how our brains efficiently represent and process shapes.

Later this semester, during Dr. Baker’s talk on his article “Constant Curvature Segments as Building Blocks of 2D Shape Representation,” we were introduced to the importance of relational properties in the context of visual shape perception. Dr. Baker showcased how abstract representations of shapes, specifically those based on constant curvature ultimately allow for efficient encoding by the human brain. The research done by Dr. Baker in conjunction with his fellow colleagues underscore that it is indeed these representations which allow us to recognize objects across a wide variety of contexts by focusing on spatial relationships as opposed to focusing solely on key specific details. Experiments done within his study highlighted that the human visual system is indeed highly attuned to detecting constant curvature segments, ultimately suggesting that these constant curvature segments do serve as fundamental building blocks for 2D contour representation.

While Dr. Baker’s research provides a fascinating model of shape representation, his work is part of a much larger current conversation within the field, one that intriguingly intersects with a recent breakthrough at MIT. In December 2023, MIT researchers announced their findings in an MIT News article titled “Image Recognition Accuracy Tied to Minimum Viewing Time” which puts emphasis on how our human brains can indeed identify objects even when visual exposure is extremely brief. The MIT study revealed that humans appear to only need approximately 100 milliseconds in order to form an accurate representation of an object at hand. The MIT researchers remark that this minimum viewing time metric appears to challenge the previous assumptions within the scientific literature about visual processing precision and speed while also suggesting that the human brain relies on optimized encoding mechanisms (such as the structural descriptions proposed by Dr. Baker) in order to abstract meaningful information almost instantaneously.

The MIT researchers investigated how this efficiency translates to both machine learning models and human cognition as they identified key limitations within artificial systems upon comparing neural network performance with human datasets. They remark how these AI systems have been noted to often fail to replicate the overall robustness of human perception. Their findings highlight the importance of abstract representations, much like that of the constant curvature segments described by Dr. Baker in bridging the gap between artificial visual systems and biological visual systems. When both pieces of the ever-growing puzzle are looked at together, the MIT study in conjunction with Dr. Baker’s research depicts an extremely intriguing narrative; that our human brains are indeed wired for efficiency and speed, utilizing symbolic representations in order to make sense of the visual world around us within a fraction of a second. Dr. Baker’s proposed constant curvature model meshes well with MIT’s observations ultimately suggesting that the neural mechanisms attuned to curvature may indeed be vital to rapid object recognition. This compelling connection begs extensive questions about the implications of such findings. Could incorporating the principles of constant curvature representation into the realm of machine learning algorithms facilitate the creation of more human-like and efficient AI systems? Furthermore, what could these insights showcase about the adaptability and plasticity of our own visual systems in regards to adjusting to new visual environments?

As hardworking scientists like Dr. Baker and the entire MIT research team continue to expand our current understanding of visual perception, it becomes increasingly clear that comprehending the building blocks of shape representation is more than a mere scientific pursuit, it is an open gate towards making revolutionary advancements within the realms of technology and neuroscience in this technology-driven age. Looking into the near future, the dialogue between empirical findings such as those from academic institutions like that of MIT and theoretical frameworks like that of Dr. Baker provides a stirring glimpse into the possibilities of fully decoding the visual world. This synergy promises not only to increase our understanding of the inherent complexities of human vision but to also facilitate innovation within the fields of healthcare, AI, and even robotics.

References:  

Baker, N., Garrigan, P., & Kellman, P. J. (2021). Constant curvature segments as building blocks of 2D shape representation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 150(8), 1556–1580. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001007

Gordon, R. (2023, December 15). Image Recognition Accuracy: An Unseen Challenge Confounding Today’s AI. MIT News. https://news.mit.edu/2023/image-recognition-accuracy-minimum-viewing-time-metric-1215

Decoding Aesthetic Preferences: How Symmetry, Complexity, and Social Factors Shape Perception

Aesthetics play a massive role in shaping our perceptions and interactions with the world around us as they influence the way that we appreciate art, interact with other people, and use technology. The way that we process different aesthetic variables says a lot about our cognitive frameworks. Understanding the way people process aesthetic variables such as symmetry and complexity is crucial for creating designs that resonate with people at an emotional and cognitive level. Recent research highlights the way that these elements influence personal preferences and emotional responses. This research can offer valuable insights with various practical implications for fields in product and interface design. 

Dr. Norberto Grzywacz’s presentation on his recent study that delves into the processing of different aesthetic variables challenges the traditional hypotheses on aesthetic variable processing such as Birkhoff’s aesthetic measure and the independence hypothesis. The research group identified certain ‘aesthetic islands’ amongst their research participants, as they had distinguished clusters of members with specific likes and dislikes. Within the study, most men seemed to prefer symmetry, while women seemed to prefer simplicity, and individuals with more art exposure showed decreased conformity to specific clusters1. These results highlight how different social factors can lead to variance in aesthetic judgments. 

Another research group explored how interface design aesthetics such as symmetry, complexity, and shape affect emotional responses while using smartwatch dials as a case study. Their results showed that complex and round interfaces create more emotional arousal and valence than their counterparts, and that asymmetric designs cause higher emotional arousal, but symmetrical designs cause a higher emotional valence2. The findings from Dr. Grzywacz’s study can open up new avenues for interface designers to fine tune their interfaces to make them appeal more to people who belong in specific aesthetic islands. This would allow for more distinct user-specific experiences with technology for people who belong to different social niches. 

Overall, aesthetic research reveals how different characteristics such as symmetry and complexity shape individual preferences. These preferences can sometimes be predicted based on an individual's social group, but further research needs to be done on how an individual’s social niches affect their aesthetic preferences. Elucidating these effects can provide for better user experiences with technology as interface design can be tuned to fit with an individual’s preferences. 

References

1. Mather, K. B., Aleem, H., Rhee, Y., & Grzywacz, N. M. (2023). Social groups and polarization of aesthetic values from symmetry and complexity. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-47835-w

2. Wang, J., & Hsu, Y. (2020). The Relationship of Symmetry, Complexity, and Shape in Mobile Interface Aesthetics, from an Emotional Perspective—A Case Study of the Smartwatch. Symmetry, 12(9), 1403. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12091403