Feeling Fine Does Not Mean Healed: What Neuroscience Says About Hidden Brain Recovery

                Most people think of concussions as a temporary thing. You get hit, you get dazed, you get a headache. After some time you are " well " again. But what if it is okay to feel okay and your brain isn’t all the way healed?

               I learned in a neuroscience lecture this semester that there are other ways to measure brain function other than just behavior or symptoms. For example, there’s frequency-following response (FFR), which is a measure of the brain’s ability to follow sound, particularly pitch. In the brainstem, this happens and it is important for speech understanding, especially in noisy environments.

               What I learned is that even when someone feels better after a concussion, their brain may not be hearing sound quite the same. Recovery may not be as straightforward as symptom checklists suggest.

               This is tied directly into an article I saw the other day on NPR about how many athletes are coming back to sports without the proper care or time to heal. The article notes concussion protocols are often based on self-reported symptoms and short cognitive tests. If someone can say that they feel fine, they are usually permitted to resume normal activities.

               But neuroscience indicates this might not be enough.

               If brain activity is still different after the symptoms are gone, people may be going back to school, sports or work before their brain is ready. This can impact things such as attention, learning and even comprehension of conversations, particularly in busy environments. These are not always obvious problems, but they may build up.

               That also raises bigger questions about how we define recovery. According to National Public Radio (2023), many athletes are returning to play without proper recovery. Currently, recovery is mostly based on how someone feels and how they do on simple tests. But if there are deeper processes happening in the brain we might miss some of the picture.

               Other, more objective measures such as neural responses may be used to improve concussion diagnosis and management. These tools have not yet been widely used and are less accessible and hence more complicated in real-world settings.

               Overall, this topic was eye opening to me that the brain does not always heal in ways that we can see easily. No symptoms do not mean it is back to normal. As neuroscience progresses, we may have to reconfigure what “recovered” really means.

 

References

National Public Radio. (2023, October 12). More athletes are suffering concussions. Few are getting            proper care. https://www.npr.org/2023/10/12/1205290475/concussions-athletes-treatment

Brain Stimulation and Treating Mental Illness

 

When medicine speaks the body’s language

When medicine speaks the body’s language

Most of modern medicine focuses on creating synthetic drugs in a lab, from more synthetic ingredients; treating some issues while creating new ones. Scientists Wei-Ming Yu, Madelyn A. McCullen, and Vincent C.-F. Chen explored a different approach when looking at nerve injuries by using electricity itself as the course of treatment. They mainly focused on peripheral nerves because of their role as information transmitters through electrical signals between central and peripheral nervous system, functioning as the brain’s own language. 

However, this is not the first time electricity has been used a form of treatment. Historically, other forms of electrical stimulation have been used, such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), which alters brain activity to simulate seizures. What makes this new study special is the fact that instead of focusing on intensity and frequency, it emphasized how the pattern of electrical stimulation influences the body’s response.  

In the case of peripheral nerves being damaged, communication between the brain and the rest of the body is affected which often leads to a loss of sensation or motor function. Because these nerves are highly dependent on electrical signals, the researchers have explored electrical stimulation as a way to restore communication and promote the regeneration of these synapses. Instead of increasing the strength or frequency of signals are delivered, the scientists suggested that the structure of the signal itself is what actually mattered.  

Ultimately, this study highlighted a shift in how medicine approaches treatment and healing by using the body’s own language. Why introduce new chemicals into the human body when the body already has successful ways of healing itself, all science needs to do is enhance these systems. 

References

Yu, W.-M., McCullen, M. A., & Chen, V. C.-F. (2022). Accelerating peripheral nerve regeneration using electrical stimulation of selected power spectral densities. Neural Regeneration Research, 17(4), 781–782. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.322458

Zhang, M. W. B., & Ho, R. C. M. (2019). Electroconvulsive therapy: Current perspectives. World Journal of Psychiatry, 9(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v9.i1.1

Drugs Rewire the Brain

In our generation, drugs are a concerning problem, becoming more and more common among today's youth. Modern society faces a growing challenge with substance abuse disorders, including stimulant and opioid addiction. Drugs do not simply create social pressure, but rewire and change neural pathways responsible for desire, motivation, and self-control. Cocaine addiction in particular remains a serious concern as it is responsible for altering the reward system in ways that increase cravings and decrease our ability for self-control. 

Dr. Stephan Steidl and colleagues explored this in their lab, specifically looking at pathways in the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus and ventral tegmental area. They examined how repeated cocaine exposure changes communication in the reward circuitry of the brain. Through their experiments, they studied glutamate signaling in the VTA, displaying that cocaine strengthens excitatory inputs to dopamine neurons through mechanisms like LTP. They used ontogenetic techniques and found the role of LDTg glutamate cells or their VTA afferents to be essential in the development of cocaine sensitization in male mice. They discovered that the connection between the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus and the ventral tegmental area is required for the sensitization of cocaine. Sensitization occurs when repeated drug use causes the brain to react more strongly to cocaine over time, which increases behavioral responses and reinforces addiction pathways. Repeated drug use over time leads to sensitization, the brain becomes more responsive to the drug use, and results in enhanced drug-seeking behaviors and relapse.

These studies were done on male mice; another closely related study, "Cocaine self-administration disrupts mesolimbic dopamine circuit function and attenuates dopaminergic responsiveness to cocaine," looked at what happens to the brain when humans use cocaine. Researchers in the lab of Dr. Jones in the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology at the Wake Forest School of Medicine used machines like PET scans to see how cocaine affects the dopamine pathways in people who are addicted to it. They found that people with chronic cocaine use showed reduced dopamine receptor availability and abnormal reward processing in the mesolimbic system. These structural changes make natural rewards, such as relationships, achievements, and hobbies, less satisfying, while drug-related cues become more powerful triggers for cravings. Things that are normally fun, like spending time with friends or doing something you're good at, are not as enjoyable anymore.

Together, these studies shift the concern from a societal issue to a biological issue. This reinforces the behavior addicts display and how it is difficult to reverse the effects caused by cocaine and other such drugs. Such studies inform us, the public, of the biological effects of addiction and how they actively rewire it. Drugs are a measurable condition that reshape neural pathways over time, and if not taken precautions against, will ruin every generation that abuses them. 

Works Cited: 

Siciliano CA, Ferris MJ, Jones SR. Cocaine self-administration disrupts mesolimbic dopamine circuit function and attenuates dopaminergic responsiveness to cocaine. Eur J Neurosci. 2015 Aug;42(4):2091-6. doi: 10.1111/ejn.12970. Epub 2015 Jun 28. PMID: 26037018; PMCID: PMC4540675.

Steidl, S., Wang, H., & Wise, R. A. (2017). Glutamate inputs from the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus to the ventral tegmental area are essential for the induction of cocaine sensitization in male mice. Neuropsychopharmacology, 42(11), 2232–2241. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.72

Is it ADHD Or Just Sleep Debt?

    The review article "An update on adolescent sleep: New evidence informing the perfect storm model" by Stephanie Crowley et al. discusses current understanding about adolescent sleep patterns and the consequences of them. There is a section that highlights the circadian barrier that comes from early start times in high school, especially being shifted after middle school. A key finding was "that the melatonin onset phase (i.e., the circadian timing system) for these adolescents was 40 min later in 10th versus 9th grade" (Crowley, 2018). 10th graders experience a natural shift in their circadian system that makes them feel tired 40 minutes later than their younger selves, and therefore require a later wake time to make sure they get enough sleep. So, to suit their biology, 10th graders should have later school start times than previous years, but instead they have even earlier ones! When their biology says that they should be sleeping at a certain time in the morning, it can not be constructive to have a student instead sitting in a classroom trying to learn content; their brain should still be resting. Having this disconnect in so many young people naturally leads to behavioral and cognitive consequences, so as time has progressed to have so many students in this position, it makes sense that more behavioral and cognitive performance issues are popping up too. As these school times as well as many other psychosocial pressures weigh on adolescents and drive them into sleep dept, there could be major decreases in focus, attention, and academic performance as a result.

    Lacking in focus, attention, and academic performance are all common traits of ADHD and other behavioral disorders. In the past decade, there has been a major increase in the diagnoses of these conditions, and many more outwardly wondering if they may have one of these disorders. 

    On the topic of ADHD, I read the Neuroscience article "Prior Sleep and Age Sculpt the Brain’s Awake Signals" that discusses a research paper that analyzed young people and sleep in a different way than the article I've already discussed. It was discussed here that expected differences are to be seen in the brain activity of ADHD and neurotypical children, and the previous research in the field found activity differences between the sleeping brains of ADHD children compared to neurotypical children. However, when this research was conducted on their waking brains, the same differences were not observed. This suggests that the observed differences are not due to the disorder itself, but must be something else related to the sleep quality of these children. The question then becomes, what caused the differences in brain activity between different children while they were sleeping that didn't occur while they were awake? Additionally, these findings when they were sleeping were such a way that they were accepted as explained by the disorder, and only further research discovered differently. More work is needed to be done to be sure, but the article suggests that these differences could be caused by sleep dept and the outcomes that it leaves on an individual, sleeping and awake. When it comes to children with ADHD and those without, "the variability in their brain signals... suggests that many observed brain patterns may actually be signals of sleep debt rather than the disorder itself," (NeuroscieneNews, 2026).

    The connection I made when reading both of these articles may be a bit of a stretch, but it is a potential connection that could be a target of future research. With the research about adolescent sleep quality and subsequent consequences in their academic and personal lives, I wonder if these results are being observed more frequently than expected over these past couple decades. Something I know has been increasing in diagnoses and frequency in society is ADHD and other behavioral disorders. I have heard a lot of skepticism over conditions like this because of how much they are popping up, and how they seem to affect too many people. Based on both of these papers, I think it is possible that this increase in behavioral disorder prevalence is related to the decrease in sleep quality across so many adolescents these days. If there are a lot of young people who are experiencing behavioral difficulties, especially in school, yet it seems to be totally normal and something they can't change, it may be due to the normalization of such pressure filled lives and our society that expects sleep to be sidelined for other priorities. If the sleep dept is normalized to an individual, then their behavior is also normalized, at least in the sense that it is seen as an innate part of the individual rather than just a consequence of struggling at a particular time. Whether or not this sleep-disorder correlation is true, I think it simply highlights the importance of getting a comprehensive and professional opinion of ones behavior, if possible, if there are ever concerns of typical and atypical behavior. Maybe an individual is struggling in many similar ways as someone with ADHD, but they can improve based on just their environment, which is a solution that people who really do have the disorder no not have. This further research could assist in understanding adolescents more and realizing the depth of pressure they are under, and this can lead to better assistance and intervention for those who are struggling, behavioral disorder or not.

References: 

Crowley, Stephanie et al. "An Update on Adolescent Sleep: New Evidence Informing the Perfect Storm Model." Elsevier, 2018.

Neuroscience News. “Prior Sleep and Age Sculpt the Brain’s Awake Signals.” Neuroscience News, 27 Apr. 2026, neurosciencenews.com/awake-eeg-sleep-brain-development-30614/

The Effects of Physical Exercise on Sleep Before Sleep

 The Effects of Physical Exercise on Sleep Before Sleep

    Recent studies have shown that being able to have a good nights sleep is immensely beneficial for physical performance. Hitting more that 8-9 hours for an adult is considered the perfect amount of sleep. With physical performance, sleep is critical for physical performance. It’s when the body repairs muscle tissue, restores energy stores, and regulates hormones that control strength, endurance, and recovery. Poor sleep can lead to slower reaction times, reduced coordination, and quicker fatigue, making workouts feel harder and increasing the risk of injury. On the other hand, consistent, high-quality sleep supports better focus, faster recovery, and improved overall athletic output, meaning you not only perform better but also adapt more effectively to training over time. Many people have tried even exercising right before bed thinking that exercise at not matter the time of day would make them tired enough to go to sleep and get a good amount of sleep. According to Alnawwar et. al, extreme exercise before bed actually has detrimental affect on your sleep. Like all other healthy actions, everything is good in moderation. Extreme sleep before bed can disrupt sleep. High intensity workouts within 1-4 hours of sleep can raise core body temperatures, increase heart rate, and release adrenaline which can make it much harder to sleep. Light exercise like a jog can make you much more relaxed, however, lifting heavy weights, sprinting, or many other things can cause you to not be able to sleep. It is recommended by most doctors to keep late night exercising to a maximum of 30 minutes. It is an interesting discovery but can bring insight to those who feel like they struggle to fall asleep even though they seem to be tiring themselves out before bed. 

Works Cited

Alnawwar, Majd A., et al. “The Effect of Physical Activity on Sleep Quality and Sleep Disorder: A Systematic Review.” Cureus, vol. 15, no. 8, 16 Aug. 2023, pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10503965/, https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.43595.

‌

It Isn't Just Willpower: The Brain Science Behind Overeating

    Overeating is often reduced to a failure of impulse control, where individuals ignore their body's satisfaction cues by eating past the point of feeling full. However, this oversimplification overlooks the underlying neurological process where physiological signals in the brain’s reward center are activated before eating begins, which contributes to loss of control eating. In Joe Vukov’s research paper titled “ Brain-Responsive Neurostimulation for Loss of Control Eating: Early Feasibility Study,” loss-of-control (LOC) eating is referred to as the feeling of being unable to stop eating or regulate how much one consumes.   

    After analyzing this study, the most interesting point was made about LOC eating and how it isn't about willpower but is interlinked with the brain’s reward system, specifically the nucleus accumbens, which responds to anticipating food rather than just the action of eating. Vukov suggests that there are small windows occurring before a person eats, where the brain is already signaling that a loss of control occurrence is about to take place. The proposed solution is to use the brain's responsive neurostimulation to interrupt the signal before the urge becomes an eating behavior. 

    These findings correlate with a Psychology Today article titled Loss of Control Eating After Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery by Riccardo Dalle Grave, which explains how, after a metabolic or bariatric surgery, people can still experience this loss of control eating because the underlying brain-driven urge and patterns are unchanged. Ultimately, these surgeries only alter the stomach and not the reward system that pushes these compulsive food eating behaviors. His findings provide more insight into why some patients experience a regain of weight post surgery because of the ongoing neural pattern.

    Both sources clarify how complex the issue of overeating really is because a person’s brain is already driven by the behavior before they consciously decide to eat. This means treatment only focuses on behaviors such as diet or stomach reconstruction and may ignore the underlying issue. Therefore, developing approaches that target the brain will be more effective for some people. Overall, it is abundantly clear that the loss of control behavior while eating isn't inherently a bad habit but a neurologically driven process. Once we address the root cause of these stigmatized behaviors, it will feel less productive to blame the individual and more effective to focus on treatments. 

References:

GraveRiccardo. “Loss of Control Eating after Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery.” Psychology Today, 2024, www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/eating-disorders-the-facts/202409/loss-of-control-eating-after-metabolic-and-bariatric-surgery. Accessed 30 Apr. 2026.

Wu, Hemmings, et al. “Brain-Responsive Neurostimulation for Loss of Control Eating: Early Feasibility Study.” Neurosurgery, vol. 87, no. 6, 27 July 2020, pp. 1277–1288, https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyaa300.

Localizing the Homeostatic System of Sleep

    Sleep and sleep optimization have been areas of interest for years. People seek to learn how to maximize their sleep, what constitutes “good” sleep, and the long-term effects of poor sleep. One such researcher in this field, Dr. Stephanie Crowley, delivered a talk this semester about the effects and potential causes of poor sleep among adolescents. As children grow, their circadian rhythms shift later and later, their “biological night” shifting back much farther into the evening. This shift in sleep schedule, coupled with various sources of pressure, creates what Dr. Crowley dubs a “perfect storm” of chronic sleep deprivation. According to the work of Dr. Crowley, such sources include early school start times that are incongruous with their later biological schedule; social stressors; and an increased sensitivity to evening light that makes it more difficult yet to fall asleep.

    It is believed that sleep quality and sleep schedules are generally regulated by two components: the circadian system and the homeostatic system. The circadian system cycles approximately every 24 hours and is generally consistent regardless of prior sleep/wake conditions. It is more dependent on the time of day and exposure to light. In contrast, its counterpart, the homeostatic system, is quite dependent on prior sleep/wake conditions. It favors sleep the longer one is awake, and favors wakefulness if one has been asleep for a sufficient period. What is most fascinating is the seemingly multimodal nature of the homeostatic system. The circadian system has been localized to the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus; the homeostatic system, however, does not have a single localized center. Instead, it is hypothesized that it synthesizes inputs from many areas of the brain, including but not limited to the nucleus of the solitary tract; the parabrachial nucleus; GABAergic neurons in the medulla; cholinergic neurons in the nucleus ambiguous; and catecholaminergic cells in the ventrolateral medulla and locus coeruleus that work together to regulate sleep-wake states.

    Each of these areas interfaces with the others to promote restful sleep and regulate arousal in the event of danger while one is asleep. For example, the parabrachial nucleus, which serves as the brain’s alarm system and receives inputs from the NST, is primarily known for its arousal-promoting functions. However, a subset of PBN neurons—Adycap1-expressing NST-to-PBN projections—directly promote NREM sleep, thus implicating it as having a much more significant role in sleep-wake regulation. Additionally, the norepinephrinergic locus coeruleus neurons found in the dorsal pons are highest during active wakefulness and absent during REM sleep. The activity of these neurons is crucial for regulating attention and arousal, but sleep-promoting neurons can suppress them via GABAergic inhibition.

    

    The homeostatic system needs many parts to function as smoothly as it does. As someone keen on learning and memory, it would be very interesting to find out the downstream effects of the dysfunction of these areas of the brain, as it has been long established that chronically poor sleep impairs both.

Works Cited

    Yao, Yuanyuan, and Yang Dan. “Body-Brain Integration: The lower brainstem in sleep-wake regulation.” Annual Review of Neuroscience, 20 Apr. 2026, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-neuro-082625-012115.

    Crowley, Stephanie J., et al. “An update on adolescent sleep: New evidence informing the perfect storm model.” Journal of Adolescence, vol. 67, no. 1, 13 June 2018, pp. 55–65, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.06.001.

Why “Feeling Fine” on No Sleep Misleads You

    You wake up after a little sleep and feel fine. You stay productive and assume your body has adapted. I used to think the same. Research shows this feeling masks a problem.

Stephanie J. Crowley explains adolescent sleep through the “Perfect Storm” model. Biology shifts sleep later. School schedules force early wake times. Teens need about nine hours, yet average closer to seven. This gap creates a constant deficit that affects attention, memory, and emotional control. You operate below optimal levels even when you do not notice it.

A 2025 study in Nature Neuroscience shows what happens in the brain during sleep loss. The brain does not shut down; it reorganizes. Regions that support alertness increase activity to keep you awake, while regions that support decision making and memory become unstable. You stay awake on the surface while deeper processes weaken.

This creates a mismatch between how you feel and how you perform. You feel alert while your performance fluctuates. You can focus for short periods, then lose track or make simple errors. Reaction time slows, and memory encoding drops. Studies show sleep deprivation can reduce cognitive performance to levels similar to alcohol impairment, even when you report feeling awake.

I have definitely experienced this without realizing what was happening. There have been days after very little sleep when I felt completely normal during class. I could follow along, take notes, and even answer questions. But later, when I tried to study or recall what I learned, it was much harder than usual. At the time, I thought I just needed to review more. Now it makes more sense. My brain was maintaining surface-level alertness, but the deeper processes needed for learning were not functioning properly.

The most surprising part of the research is that this mismatch is not obvious to us. We tend to judge our performance based on how we feel. If we feel awake, we assume we are thinking clearly. But the brain does not work that way under sleep deprivation. Some networks are overcompensating, while others are underperforming. The result is a false sense of normal function.

What I find most important about both the seminar and the Nature article is the idea that sleep deprivation is not just about feeling exhausted. It is about your brain quietly shifting into a less reliable mode of operation. The danger is not always how bad you feel, but how normal you feel when something is actually off.

So, the next time you wake up after barely sleeping and feel “fine,” it is worth questioning that feeling. It might not mean you are functioning well. It might mean your brain is working harder just to keep things together, which is not something that can last.

Works Cited

Crowley, Stephanie J., et al. An Update on Adolescent Sleep: New Evidence Informing the Perfect Storm Model. Journal of Adolescence, 2018.

Li, J., Ilina, A., Peach, R. et al. Falling asleep follows a predictable bifurcation dynamic. Nat Neurosci 28, 2515–2525 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-025-02091-1

BCIs and Privacy of Thought Implications

Loyola philosophy professor Joe Vukov discussed the neuroscientific uses and ethics of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) with our class. BCIs are essentially systems that allow communication between the brain and some external technology. Vukov mentioned the difference between closed-loop and open-loop BCIs. Open-loop BCIs read brain signals and then turn those signals into actions. Closed-loop BCIs act on the brain by the same mechanism, but they also send feedback back to the brain in order to constantly adapt the system to better understand what each brain signal means. 

One example of a closed-loop BCI is the one used in our background article: "Brain-Responsive Neurostimulation for Loss of Control Eating: Early Feasibility Study." The article explores a new technique for reducing binge eating in obese patients. The study's procedure involves bilateral electrode implants into the NAc that will be stimulated during electrophysiological signals of LOC eating. The goal is to reduce LOC-related eating by stimulating the NAc. When a pattern of NAc activity becomes associated with LOC eating, the BCI learns to stimulate that same region again. In doing so, the BCI hinders brain activity that would cause binge-eating behavior. 

One major ethical concern we discussed was that BCIs may harm privacy of thought. BCIs are involved in translating thoughts into “spoken” word work by determining the neural activity associated with certain thoughts. This could be especially helpful in cases where people cannot communicate due to paralysis. However, it may be difficult for BCIs to determine exactly which thoughts are personal ones and which ones are intended to be spoken. This creates an ethical dilemma in which one’s private thoughts may be collected as data. I found it particularly interesting that Vukov said the way we think may affect a BCI’s ability to distinguish between private thoughts and thoughts that are intended to be spoken. The majority of people have an internal monologue where their thoughts are “heard” in words. A minority of people, though, do not have words in their internal monologue. For this minority, the brain signals associated with private thoughts versus thoughts to be spoken are more variant, making it easier for BCIs to determine the difference. I would be interested to hear how the IRB can adapt to ensure that all participants involved in experimental BCI use can keep their cognitive liberty.

Wu, H., et al. (2020). Brain-Responsive Neurostimulation for Loss of Control Eating: Early Feasibility Study. Neurosurgery, 87(6), 1277–1288. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyaa300 

https://morebrainpoints.blogspot.com/2026/04/bcis-and-privacy-of-thought-implications.html

Postnatal Solutions for Prenatal Stress

    I was recently able to attend Dr. Sodhi’s talk focused on psychiatric illnesses. She dove into illnesses like Autism Spectrum Disorder, bipolar disorders, and others, with a particular emphasis on schizophrenia. She identified glutamatergic dysfunction as a hallmark when it comes to psychiatric illness, decreased activity being identified in people with schizophrenia. She also mentioned that reduced RNA editing is another biomarker of schizophrenia. Following this, the talk was centered around a research article looking into if editing RNA can help prevent or treat neurological diseases or cancer. An important factor in the levels of RNA editing is prenatal stress. It is associated with impaired developmental switch in the hippocampus which results in increased transcription of GluN2B and decreased levels of RNA editing. An interesting point I thought that Dr. Sodhi made was about the widespread effects that stressful historical events like The Six Day War and the Dutch Hunger Winter can have. There are things that mothers can do to try to avoid prenatal stress, but some things are out of their control like socioeconomic status or what is happening in the world around them.

    Following this, I was curious if there are ways to mitigate the effects of prenatal stress. The article “Everyday Skills Protect the Developing Brain from Prenatal Stress” examines if this is possible. It focuses on the effect that adaptive skills, meaning abilities that help children be independent and interact with others, can have on preventing some of the long term effects of prenatal stress. Its foundation is a study that examined children that were in the womb during Superstorm Sandy, a stressful event outside of the mother’s control. In this longitudinal study, they found that early adaptive skills impacted how prenatal stress later influenced the limbic system in emotional-processing regions. The children who underwent prenatal stress but also showed stronger adaptive skills early on, displayed similar brain activation patterns to those who were not exposed to prenatal stress. Those who were exposed but showed lower early adaptive skills displayed reduced limbic brain activation. 

    Both Dr. Sodhi’s talk and this article provide important insights into the effects that prenatal stress can have, and possible ways to combat it. They are both crucial in their own ways. RNA editing allows for a more intense attack on the adverse effects of prenatal stress, showing impacts in severe cases like schizophrenia and cancer. On the other hand, encouraging the development of adaptive skills early on is more accessible to people, and following this can have more widespread effects to aid children who experience disadvantages due to prenatal stress but might not be facing a diagnosis. Both works focus on the effects prenatal stress can have on the limbic system, identifying the same foundation as possibly problematic and in need of attention. They also both highlight how prenatal stress can be outside of the mother’s control and far reaching. At the end of the day, these two solutions to the same problem highlight the importance of having multiple ways to combat neurological disorders and disadvantages due to the complexities of our brains and the world we live in. As the world we live in is filled with stress-inducing events, this is a crucial area of research that provides relief to negative effects a child can experience because of factors neither they nor their mother had any control over. It shows that certain experiences do not need to produce permanent disadvantages, but there are interventions that necessitate further research and a dissemination of knowledge to the public.

References:

Broni, Emmanuel, et al. “Molecular Docking and Dynamics Simulation Studies Predict Potential Anti-ADAR2 Inhibitors: Implications for the Treatment of Cancer, Neurological, Immunological and Infectious Diseases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 24, no. 7, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, Apr. 2023, pp. 6795–95, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076795. Accessed 28 April 2026.

‌

News, Neuroscience. “Everyday Skills Protect the Developing Brain from Prenatal Stress - Neuroscience News.”Neuroscience News, 24 Apr. 2026, neurosciencenews.com/adaptive-skills-prenatal-stress-buffer-30593/. Accessed 28 April 2026.

Sleepless nights may raise dementia risks by 40%, Mayo Clinic reveals (Isabel Korstanje)

 Many suffer from restless nights, however few fail to realize its effects. Many may see it as short term, or perhaps something that can be fixed with an energy drink or large coffee with a few shots of espresso. However, this isn't something that should be pushed aside and forgotten. College students make up a large number of those who fail to receive an adequate amount of sleep, much of which can be reflected in their behavior or academic success. It can affect their ability to recall things quickly, or their appetite, or perhaps motivation. 

In a seminar done at Loyola University, Stephen Crowley spoke on how biological changes during adolescence can affect sleeping patterns, ultimately leading to an insufficient amount of sleep during their teen years.1 As they mature in age their circadian rhythm shifts, causing children to seem more alert and awake at night rather than during the day.1 This affects their sleep schedule with sleeping later on in the day, causing a conflict with school schedules and daily life activities. This demand between societal norms in time and biological needs can have and have shown a negative affect on academic success, mood, and cognitive functions. 

A journal sourced from the American Academy of Neurology also focused on the effects of sleep deprivation and the biological changes it makes. The journal explains that chronic insomnia may be a main cause of a faster decline in cognitive function and aging of the brain.2 This is assuming that these effects are shown later on in life. Researchers also found that those who suffer from lack of sleep are 40% more likely to develop mild cognitive impairment or dementia compared to those who receive a healthy amount of sleep.2 Physical changes were also shown,such as damage to blood vessels and build up of plaque.2 Although the study does not prove that this is a direct cause, it does suggest a correlation between the two. 

Although both present findings based on different stages of life, both sources of information emphasize the importance of sleep and the massive role it plays in our daily lives. Whilst one represents the beginning of effects lack of sleep has in our lives, the second depicts the end stages. 

1. Crowley, S. J., Wolfson, A. R., Tarokh, L., & Carskadon, M. A. (2018). Adolescent sleep: Current understanding and future directions. Journal of Adolescence, 67, 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.06.001

        2. Diego Z. Carvalho, Bhanu Prakash Kolla, Stuart J. McCarter, Erik K. St. Louis, Mary M.                             Machulda,            Scott A. Przybelski, Angela J. Fought, Val J. Lowe, Virend K. Somers, Bradley                 F. Boeve, Ronald C.         Petersen, Clifford R. Jack, Jonathan Graff-Radford, Andrew William                     Varga, Prashanthi Vemuri.                 Associations of Chronic Insomnia, Longitudinal Cognitive             Outcomes, Amyloid-PET, and White         Matter Changes in Cognitively Normal Older                     Adults. Neurology, 2025; 105 (7) DOI:                             10.1212/WNL.0000000000214155

Addiction and the Brain’s Lasting Changes

During Dr. Stephan Steidl’s guest lecture he brought up a very thought provoking topic, the idea that repeated drug use doesn't just affect behavior, but it also rewires the brain physically. Dr.Steidl’s research focused on how cocaine disrupts the reward pathways that rely on dopamine and glutamine signaling. The reason this was so thought provoking is because it challenges the bias that most people have that people with additions have weak willpower or bad decisions, it is not about that, it is a neurological change. 

This reframing changes the way we think about addiction. If the brain itself is being altered by repeated drug exposure, then the question of “why can’t they stop?” becomes a lot more complicated than it seems. Research backs this up in a surprising way. A 2019 study found that rats exposed to cocaine intermittently didn’t become less sensitive to the drug over time; they became more sensitive to it, developing stronger dopamine responses and behavior that looked a lot like addiction (Kawa et al., 2019). Meaning the brain wasn’t building a tolerance as people expect, but it was doing the exact opposite. 

What makes this even more complicated is what repeated drug use does to decision-making. A 2020 review found that long-term substance use can reduce activity in the prefrontal cortex, a part of the brain involved in judgment, planning, and impulse control (Volkow & Boyle, 2020). This is important because it helps explain why someone dealing with addictions might keep using even when they know it is hurting them. It is not that they don’t care; it is that the party of the brain that helps regulate that kind of thinking has been affected. 

Dr. Steidl also made the point that these changes in reward pathways don’t just go away when someone stops using drugs. That is a big part of why relapse happens, even after someone has been sober for a long time. Something as simple as a familiar place, a stressful situation, or a reminder connected to past drug use can reactivate those pathways and bring cravings back. The brain holds onto those patterns even when the behavior has stopped. 

What all of this really comes down to is that addiction is not just a behavioral issue; it is a neurological one. Understanding that the brain is physically changing through repeated drug use shifts the way we should be thinking about addiction as a society. It is not just about making better choices; it is about what happens to the brain when those choices get made over and over again. The research that supports Dr. Steidl’s lecture makes it clear that addiction is deeply connected to how the brain adapts to repeated experiences, and that is something worth taking seriously. 

References:

Kawa, Alex B., et al. “Less Is More: Prolonged Intermittent Access Cocaine Self-Administration

Produces Incentive-Sensitization and Addiction-like Behavior.” Psychopharmacology, 

Vol. 233, no. 19-20, 2 Aug. 2016, pp. 3587-3602,

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-016-4393-8. 

Volkow, Nora D., and Maureen Boyle. “Neuroscience of Addiction: Relevance to Prevention and

Treatment.” American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 175, no. 8, Aug. 2018, pp. 729-740, 

ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17101174, https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17101174. 

The Diversity of Neurodevelopmental Disorders

            Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder that has long been stereotyped and stigmatized by its representation in the media and the news. While some characteristics or portrayals of autism reflect realistic and relatable aspects, these depictions often fall into tropes that poorly represent the diversity of autism. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is expressed through symptoms that differ for every individual, and impacts each person's need for support to a varying degree. Like other neurodevelopmental disorders, autism exists on a spectrum, which requires unique approaches for different people.

The PBS News Hour segment “New focus on autism fuels debate over splitting the spectrum” by Judy Woodruff, Mary Fecteau, and Layla Quran explores different perspectives on splitting the broad definition of ASD. This proposed split would introduce the term “profound autism” to separately categorize individuals with higher symptom severity or level of need. Colin Killick and Jordyn Zimmerman, two adults with autism, share the worry that this split may lead to further stigmatization and barriers in healthcare access. On the contrary, Alicia Mesa finds relief in the acknowledgement of her son, Pablo Mesa’s severe symptoms and high needs. Autistic individuals with higher needs have their voices sidelined by those on the higher-functioning end of the spectrum, and Alicia Mesa advocates for Pablo’s reality to be recognized. The general concern throughout the segment is properly representing people who fall within the spectrum so that their individual needs and capabilities are accurately recognized.

In the research article “A single-session behavioral protocol for successful event-related potential recording in children with neurodevelopmental disorders,” Maggie W. Guy et al. address the marginalization of higher-need individuals in research. Symptoms such as sensory sensitivity impede a high-need participant’s ability to complete a trial, leading to a disproportionate representation in data. Guy et al. challenge this research barrier by devising a protocol aimed at increasing successful data collection from children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Although the protocol was highly effective for some groups, their findings disclose that one universal accommodation fails to address individual needs and differences.

Labeling and categorizing people with neurodevelopmental disorders may help us better understand their behavior, but can also have harmful consequences. These labels carry stigmas and stereotypes, and potentially reduce individuals to a single representation that doesn’t reflect their individuality. Whether it is in the social world or the realm of research, it is important to recognize and address individual differences within groups.

References:

Guy, M. W., Black, C. J., Hogan, A. L., Coyle, R. E., Richards, J. E., & Roberts, J. E. (2021). A single-session behavioral protocol for successful event-related potential recording in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Developmental Psychobiology, 63,e22194. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.22194

Woodruff, J., Fecteau, M., & Quran, L. (2026, April 27). New focus on autism fuels debate over splitting the spectrum. PBS News Hour. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/push-to-split-autism-spectrum-by-severity-sparks-controversy

Feeling Awake on No Sleep? Your Brain is Lying to You

Have you ever had one of those nights where you barely sleep but the next day you feel completely fine? Maybe even more energetic than usual? It almost feels like you have somehow hacked your sleep schedule. I used to think that way too, until I learned what is actually happening in the brain.

During my neuroscience seminar, I had the opportunity to listen to a research titled “An update on adolescent sleep: New evidence informing the perfect storm model” by Dr. Crowley, who focused on adolescent sleep. She explained how biological changes in teenagers shift their sleep cycles later into the night, while school schedules still require early wakeups. This mismatch does not just make teens tired, it directly affects attention, learning, and memory. That idea stayed with me and made me think more about how sleep actually affects the brain, not just how tired we feel.

In a Scientific American article titled “Why People Feel More Energized with Less Sleep” by J. Solis-Moreira, the author talks about something that actually feels a bit surprising at first. Sometimes when we do not get enough sleep, we actually feel more awake. However, this is not real energy, it is the brain going into a kind of emergency mode.

When we are sleep-deprived, the body releases stress-related chemicals like cortisol and adrenaline. These create a temporary boost in alertness, almost like a natural stimulant. That is why after a short night, you might feel focused or even slightly euphoric. The problem is that this feeling can be really misleading. Even though we feel awake, our cognitive functions like memory, decision-making, and attention are actually getting worse.

I have definitely experienced this myself. There were times when I went to bed late but still woke up at my usual time and felt surprisingly energetic. In those moments, it honestly felt like less sleep was somehow working better for me. But looking back, I can see that even though I felt more alert, I was not necessarily thinking more clearly. Small mistakes, slower reactions, and difficulty focusing on basic tasks would show up later.

The same thing happens during exam periods. I have noticed that if I stay up late studying, not all night but longer than I should, I can still remember the material the next day, especially after reviewing it in the morning. It makes it seem like getting less sleep did not hurt my learning. According to the article, this is exactly the kind of trap people fall into. The brain creates the illusion that everything is fine, even when performance is already declining.

What I found really interesting is that there is a gap between how we feel and how we actually function. We tend to trust our subjective sense of energy. If we do not feel tired, we assume that we are performing well. But neuroscience shows that these are two completely different things. You can feel awake and still have impaired memory, reduced attention, and slower thinking.

Sleep deprivation can be really dangerous because people might feel confident enough to drive, take exams, or make important decisions, without realizing that their brain is not operating at full capacity. It is not just about how you feel in the moment. It is about what your brain is actually capable of doing. That extra energy after not getting enough sleep is not a sign that you do not need rest, it is a sign that your brain is trying to compensate. The better you feel after no sleep, the more careful you should be.

 

Work Cited

Crowley, Stephanie J., et al. “An Update on Adolescent Sleep: New Evidence Informing the Perfect Storm Model.” Journal of Adolescence, vol. 67, 2018, pp.55-65

Solis-Moreira, Joselyn. “Why People Feel ‘Tired but Wired’ after Little Sleep.” Scientific American https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-people-feel-more-energized-with-less-sleep/