Perception Versus Reality

Yael Granot presented her research on minimizing biases in the processing of video evidence by establishing regulations and interventions for the presentation of video evidence in court. Video evidence along with other forms of sensory evidence has become accepted and commonly used in courts. The reason behind this is because the general public tends to rely on the misconception that video evidence represents situations and relevant pieces of evidence for what they are. The formats of video evidence and the neuroscience behind perception both may contribute to biased decision-making by jurors in courts. The article, “In the Eyes of the Law: Perception Versus Reality in Appraisals of Video Evidence”, questions the reliability of human perception of video evidence and thus the credibility of decisions made in court based upon visual evidence. As a result, it is critical to conduct research that aims to develop systems and methods which reduce biases in judgement and decision-making. 

An article from Psychology Today titled “Perception Is Not Reality” by Jim Taylor Ph.D. discusses the common misconception people hold that what they perceive is in fact reality. However, just because an individual may think something is reality, does not make it reality. Perception often creates a sense of relativism in circumstances that are rather absolute. It is important to keep in mind that reality exists outside of the mind and is difficult to manipulate into what it is not. With that being said however, an individual’s specific perception of something can become their personal reality.  Dr. Taylor explains, “The problem is that the lens through which we perceive is often warped in the first place by our genetic predispositions, past experiences, prior knowledge, emotions, preconceived notions, self-interest, and cognitive distortions.” (Taylor) Additionally, this article argues that our senses are a disadvantage when analyzing reality through the perceive’s point of view. I wish to redirect our attention to vision in particular. Vision, along with other senses, diverges our thought formation from reality. One might wonder; So what? One major problem that arrises is the fact that visual perception can deviate from reality and that, within itself, can become a liability in certain situations. 

Research regarding visual presentation of evidence to juries in court rooms shows that many of the problems that arise with evidence in the video category are due to various visual discriminatory and visual misperception biases due to perception deviation from reality. Errors of over belief, failures of discrimination, and lack of awareness are all problems that commonly arise in court rooms in which video/visual evidence is presented to a jury. The major issue that comes along with the usage of video evidence in court rooms is that each jury member, just like every human, has their own individualized perception of what they are being shown. Yael Granot informed us about research that showed that not every juror will see the same thing in the same video. Granot focused on showing a video of police/civilian altercation to 152 undergraduate students from NYU and monitoring their eye movement throughout in order to identify the central focus of each participant. Turns out, the participants’ focuses varied among the sample. With that being said, it is important to consider how this is applicable in real life circumstances such as a court room with a jury. The Illusory causation effect is very real and needs to be strongly considered in such situations. Because people are susceptible to sensory biases to this extent, we should not feel this comfortable relying on the jury’s decision-making in court. 

I know that sometimes judges will review the visual evidence (videos, photos, etc.) before hand and then will either allow to show them in court or not, however, judges, too, are susceptible to biases. Thus, I believe that one research method for mitigating this effect could be to conduct a study where a board of trained professionals sit down and review visual/other sensory evidence that will be presented to a jury and have this board work on eliminating stimuli that could create biases in the minds of the jury members. With multiple people reviewing the evidence and editing out perspectives that “change the true story” I predict that the jurors would make less biased final decisions when it comes to sentencing and other legal decisions. 

In Class Research Article:
https://www.dropbox.com/sh/hdluh1vfs2cphhz/AACqNFxKZ0QYojYVsPg3HafLa/(02.25.20)%20-%20Yael%20Granot?dl=0&preview=Granotetal_3PL.pdf&subfolder_nav_tracking=1

Outside Source on Perception:
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-power-prime/201908/perception-is-not-reality

Do Body Cameras Really Tell the Truth?

In the article, “Justice Is Not Blind: Visual Attention Exaggerates of Group Identification on Legal Punishment,” Dr. Yael Granot explained the ways in which video evidence can be used in the legal system. She focused on how video evidence can be perceived in different ways by different people, which in turn leads to biased decision making. One hypothesis presented in the article is that “increased attention to a common target reduces identification-based discrepancies in legal decisions.” Another said that “focusing attention on a common target will exaggerate bias in punishment decisions among individuals who vary in identification.” Granot described that though viewers of videos may pay greater attention to the subjects in the videos, this can lead to greater discrepancies and varying opinions among viewers. Despite watching the same videos or paying attention to the same target, viewers may miss critical details in other parts of the video which can lead to varying and/or biased decisions. 

Granot further explained this concept in her lecture, using the basketball/gorilla video as an example. This video depicts a basketball game and more often than not, viewers place their attention on following the ball as it’s passed from player to player. What this leads to the viewers not noticing is a man in a gorilla suit dancing and making his way right through the middle of the basketball game. Despite the gorilla being in plain view, by placing all of their attention on watching the ball, the viewers don’t even notice him. 

This example, along with the evidence presented in Granot’s article, show that the use of video evidence in court cases may not be as reliable as we think. In fact, when considering the video of the basketball game and the gorilla — in which viewers miss a big detail that is right in front of them — it begins to seem completely unreliable. How can we rely on a jury to make a judgment based on a video when each person perceives it differently and may miss critical details?

In an article published by TIME magazine, “Body Cameras Help Everyone — Including the Police,” author Maya Wiley discusses the implementation of body cameras for police officers and their benefits as another source of evidence, particularly in police brutality cases. She begins by describing a case in Texas, in which a police officer shot and killed a 15-year-old boy and upon reviewing footage from his body camera, it was discovered that what really happened was inconsistent with the officer’s statement. Following this discovery the officer was fired and faced murder charges. This case showed a benefit of body cameras and video evidence. However, Granot’s research shows this may not be the case. 

This article was published in 2017, when body camera implementation was on the rise and pilot programs were coming up through the country. Now, body cameras continue to be used by police officers in the U.S. Wiley points that civilian eyewitnesses and police officers often have different perceptions and therefore different accounts of what happens at the scene of a crime or case of police brutality. Therefore, Wiley explains, body cameras would be beneficial in showing exactly what occurred and who is at fault. While in theory this seems like a valuable tool and the most clear way to determine who is guilty, Granot’s research shows that viewers might still interpret or perceive the video in different ways. While one juror may place their focus on one subject in the video, another may be paying attention to something completely different. This results in bias, unjust or incorrect decision making and negative consequences for those involved. 

As technology evolves, it is only natural for us to want to utilize it in any way we can, particularly with things like video evidence being available when it never has been before. However, it is important to consider that what we see may not be entirely accurate and video evidence — though it seems to be something that can’t possibly be misread or misunderstood — can lead to the same biased or invalid judgments as any other piece of evidence. 

https://time.com/4771417/jordan-edwards-body-cameras-police/

The Probative Value of Video Evidence in Courtrooms

            The prevalent use of video evidence in courtrooms has started the debate regarding its reliability. Despite approximately 50% of the cortex being devoted to the processing of visual inputs, the probative value of the evidence is compromised due to its dependence on the perceptual experiences of its perceivers. On one hand, video information recruits the superior temporal sulcus more than static images, indicating that video evidence is more cognitively and emotionally arousing than still images. However, the context and conditions can influence the decision-making when watching the video, which raises the issue of credibility. The Authors of “In the Eyes of the Law: Perception Versus Reality in Appraisals of Video Evidence” discuss three reasons that comprise the probative value of video evidence in court. 

            Due to the cognitively and emotionally arousing nature of video evidence, people tend to over believe video by overestimating the accuracy of their interpretations. The limitations of visual acuity may shift attention away from crucial information leading to inaccuracy. The second problem with video evidence is the failure to discriminate between accurate and inaccurate interpretations leading to bias. Lastly, people tend to lack awareness due to not knowing that their visual experiences are biased. The bias is often overlooked because it is generally beyond conscious awareness. Dr. Granot along with colleagues discusses the importance of one’s perspective. In “Justice Is Not Blind: Visual Attention Exaggerates Effects of Group Identification on Legal Punishment” researchers demonstrate that the viewers of the video empathize with the police officer when it was filmed with a body camera as opposed to a dashboard surveillance camera questioning the accuracy of video evidence.  

            The issues with video evidence are seen in the case of Atatiana Koquice Jefferson, a black woman, whose death has been recorded by a police body camera. The police officer reported that he “perceive[ed] a threat” by noting a firearm inside the woman’s home. The body camera recorded a still image of the gun inside the bedroom and it was clear that the woman was not holding the firearm. Dr. Granot’s eye-tracking technology showed that every person divides their attention differently, which results in different interpretations of events. The still image that captured the gun not in the hands of the woman demonstrates the woman’s innocence, and therefore, the increased reliability of the still image rather than video. The body camera recorded the police officer patrolling around the house and commanding the woman to “Put [her] hands up!”. It only took four seconds from the moment of the verbal command until the woman was shot in her own home. Dr. Granot’s research demonstrates that the accurate visual detection of images in a scene can occur in as few as 13 ms, which shows that although visual processing is more facile than auditory processing, error can still occur, which is seen when the officer shot the woman after four seconds. Video evidence is much more cognitively demanding, which increases the possibility of bias due to over believing the video, failure to discriminate as well as the lack of awareness. Jefferson’s case demonstrates that still images are more reliable than video because they do not require eye gazing. Despite video evidence creating bias, it continues to resolve many cases in courtrooms. 

  

References

Granot, Y., Balcetis, E., Schneider, K. E., & Tyler, T. R. (2014). Justice is not blind: Visual attention exaggerates effects of group identification on legal punishment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(6), 2196–2208. doi: 10.1037/a0037893

Granot, Y., Balcetis, E., Feigenson, N., & Tyler, T. (2018). In the eyes of the law: Perception versus reality in appraisals of video evidence. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 24(1), 93–104. doi: 10.1037/law0000137

https://time.com/5699327/atatiana-jefferson-killed-police-officer/

Schizophrenia and Memory Deficits

Roughly a percent of the population, which is about 3.2 million people in the United States are affected by schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is classified as a mental disorder that involves a breakdown between emotion, thought, and behavior. It can be characterized by disorganized behavior or speech, difficulty with concentration, and the individual can display thoughts that are out of touch with the real world. Some symptoms of schizophrenia include fatigue, paranoia, hallucinations, and memory loss. As of right now, schizophrenia cannot be cured and may be a lifelong condition. However, some treatments can be set in place to help with the mental disorder. These treatments include psychotherapy and medications. Studies done by Dr. Molly Erickson and The Zuckerman Institute of Columbia University provided research to unravel the underlying cause to schizophrenia. Both came across different, yet unique mechanisms related to schizophrenia and how cognitive functions, specifically memory impairment, are affected. 

Dr. Molly Erickson, conducted a research study to investigate the underlying cause for memory impairment. She provided evidence that memory impairment is caused by aspects of one’s working memory, specifically the process of encoding and consolidation. Dr. Erickson and her research team looked at alpha-desynchronization and beta-desynchronization behaviors through cognitive functions in one’s working memory. In her study, she conducted a task in which one to seven squares were flashed on a screen for 200m/s. This was then followed by a delay of 800m/s. Then, there were squares that followed and individuals had to decide whether the pattern was alike or different to the image given prior. She found that schizophrenic individuals portrayed a decrease in the indicator while healthy individuals portrayed an alpha-desynchronization indicator from the bilateral occipital lobe. Her research concluded that individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia portrayed a memory impairment in the process of encoding and consolidation. 

The Zuckerman Institute of Columbia University acknowledged that disruptions in the internal GPS, found in the brain, causes severe memory deficits in schizophrenia. Researchers do not understand and know what occurs in the brain of patients with schizophrenia. In schizophrenic patients, memory impairment is commonly found. Researchers in this study were interested in investigating episodic memory in the CA1 (hippocampal circuit). Episodic memory is critical for one’s functioning in their everyday life and learning.  It helps in recalling events or a specific moment in the past. They experimented on mice which were broken up into two groups. Group one was genetically modified and mimicked schizophrenia, while group two had normal and healthy mice. Researchers experimented in the CA1 activity, which is where hundreds of cells take place and they watched when the animal recalled memories. In order to test how the animals were able to navigate in a new environment, researchers put the two different groups of mice on a treadmill. This was to see if they could recall navigating through an environment that was familiar to them and how quickly they would be able to adapt to an environment that was new to them. They were exposed to different sights, smells, and sounds. The results showed that mice that mimicked schizophrenia portrayed different behaviors and cell activity than those that were normal and healthy. Even though both groups were able to navigate in a new environment the mice with schizophrenia had a difficult time recalling environments that were familiar to them. The brain cells of the schizophrenic mice lacked adaptability. By finding this, it could help in a target for a new drug and reflected a general idea of memory deficits in those with schizophrenia. The Zuckerman Institute at Columbia University successfully proved that the CA1 is involved in memory deficits in individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia. 

In conclusion, schizophrenia continues to be a disorder that is constantly being researched and studied. The different symptoms associated with this disorder makes it extremely difficult to treat. Many researchers are interested in finding a cure to treat schizophrenia since so many individuals are affected by this disorder. Studies done by Dr. Erickson and The Zuckerman Institute of Columbia University are helping by building an understanding for this disorder that still remains a mystery. Their results might help in finding solutions to other conditions that are memory related, such as dementia. Many people who are diagnosed with schizophrenia are often judged and misunderstood. However, with research studies being done, it might aid in reducing the environment that schizophrenics are surrounded in. Despite the differences in both studies, they aim to help those who are suffering and diagnosed with schizophrenia by providing insight into the disorder and by improving one’s life.  

Erickson, M. A., Albrecht, M. A., Robinson, B., Luck, S. J., & Gold, J. M. (2017). Impaired 

Suppression of Delay-Period Alpha and Beta Is Associated With Impaired Working Memory in Schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 2(3), 272-279. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2016.09.003

The Zuckerman Institute at Columbia University. (2017, September 4). Schizophrenia, memory 

deficits: Solving the mystery behind a most stubborn symptom: Biological origins of a core symptom of schizophrenia, new study in mice reveals. ScienceDaily. Retrieved February 27, 2020 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/09/170904120423.htm

URL Article: 

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/09/170904120423.htm

Juror Perceptions: The Impact of Judicial Warning on Video Evidence

            As society becomes more and more technologically advanced, there has been more of an emphasis on presenting video evidence in courtrooms. This emphasis comes from the widely held belief that video documentation provides an objective and unbiased representation of events that have taken place. However, how video evidence is presented and the effects it may have on the juror’s perception of the events taking place have not been extensively researched.

            In the article, “In the Eyes of the Law: Perception Versus Reality in Appraisals of Video,” Yael Granot and her colleagues address the fallibility of video evidence especially when it comes to the creditability of the juror’s interpretation of the videos. The researchers also delve into the possible implications of presenting video evidence in a certain manner.  For example, Granot and colleagues highlight that the manner in which a judge introduces the visual evidence does in fact have a major impact on the way the jurors weigh evidence. As suggested by previous research, they state that “judicial instructions regarding the factors that influence eyewitnesses can sensitize jurors to those factors and affect their ultimate verdicts,” (Granot, Balcetis, Feigensen & Tyler, 2018). This suggests that both judges and lawyers should be wary of the explicit instructions given, if any, prior to presenting jurors with visual evidence.

            Jacqueline M. Wheatcroft and Hannah Keogen (2017) had also done research regarding the impact of evidence type and judicial warning on jurors perception of witness evidence. They conducted research on the matter because based on existing research it is unclear just how successful judicial warning can be when it comes to preventing or eliminating bias during the examination of evidence. The researchers investigated the impact of providing jurors with multiple types of evidence versus a single type of evidence and how receiving a judicial warning reminding the jurors to be cautious when making assessments might affect their perception of a witness. In the study, 60 participants were presented with witness evidence in either transcript format, video format, or both. In addition, half of the participants from each condition received instructions from a judge to be wary of placing disproportionate weight on the evidence as opposed to their general impression of it. Wheatcroft and Keogen found that a transcript plus video evidence when accompanied by a warning led to more positive ratings about the reliability of a witness. They discovered that providing a judicial warning made the task of what to look for less clear, which could have possibly eliminated any preconceived biases, allowing for a more holistic assessment of the evidence.

            As suggested by both of these studies, the manner in which video evidence is presented should be taken heavily into consideration. It is also important to have precautionary steps in place in order to prevent or eliminate any biases jurors might have prior to conveying the evidence.

References

Granot, Y., Balcetis, E., Feigenson, N., & Tyler, T. (2018). In the eyes of the law: Perception versus reality in appraisals of video evidence. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 24(1), 93-104. https://doi-org.flagship.luc.edu/10.1037/law0000137

Wheatcroft, J.M. & Keogan, H. (2017). Impact of evidence type and judicial warning on juror perceptions of global and specific witness evidence. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 151(3), 247-267. https://doi-org.flagship.luc.edu/10.1080/00223980.2016.1261077

Music, Children and Bilingualism

As children, everyone's parents try to put them in every after school activity posibile to make sure that the children are engaged and have their brains active. Some kids play sports while others learn an instrument. Research through the 80s onwards has shown that playing an instrument benefits the brain in a wide variety of ways. This ranges from language, memory and aiding with mental illness. One of the articles we were tasked in reading was “Listening to the Brainstem: Musicianship Enhances Intelligibility of Subcortical Representations for Speech” by Dr. Weiss and Dr. Bidelman. The main idea of the article was to examine the intelligibility of auditory playbacks of brainstem potentials. They found that behavioral classification of sonifications was faster and more categorical when they evaluated an individual with extensive musical training versus your average joe. The main takeaway was that this research could be used in early detention of speech-language impairments due to neurodegenerative disorders.

So musical training is key in helping us identify future neurodegenerative disorders, aids with memory, language etc. This is where Dr. Habibi from USC comes in with her research. She wanted to know how important it would be if a child would be put in musical training as young as five years old. So far her research has indicated that musical training is beneficial for children's brains by strengthening networks that process sound, language and communication as well as engaging areas that are responsible for decision making. Dr. Habibi wants to improve the effectiveness of music based interventions and how it can aid a wide variety of people. She will also be conducting research on children learning music that only speak one language compared to children that are bilingual. The idea is to see how bilingualism and music training can boost executive function skills in children and later on adults. 

Everyone hears how music training is good for the brain. Dr. Weiss and Dr. Bidelman shows that individuals with music training have better classification of sonifications than someone that did not have any musical training. On the other hand, Dr. Habibi is conducting research with children who are either bilingual and non-billegual to see how music training will impact their executive functions in the future. In her research she is comparing children that have no musical training (control) to her two other groups of children. She believes that musical training will be key in aiding children going into their middle school years since it appears musical training aids in emotion processing. Research by Weiss, Bidelman and Habibi all show that musical training has many benefits and not only aid individuals and children but can also aid them down the line as adults.

References:

Gersema, Emily. “USC Research Reinforces Music's Impact on the Developing Brain.” USC News, 6 Dec. 2019, news.usc.edu/163295/musical-training-brain-development-usc-research-nih-grant/.

Listening to the Brainstem: Musicianship Enhances ... www.jneurosci.org/content/35/4/1687.

AUD, PTSD and TMS

It is commonly known that many people use alcohol in response to elevated levels of stress. However, it is less commonly known that Veterans and firefighters are disproportionally at risk for alcohol use disorder (AUD) in relation to the general population (Herrold, 2014). Worldwide AUD prevalence rates range from 0%-16% but for Veterans it reaches as high as 36% (Herrold, 2014). Therefore, it seems logical to hypothesize that the innate stressful nature of both of those occupations could be correlated to, if not partially responsible for, the increased prevalence of AUD in both the Veteran and firefighting communities.

 In a study recently published by the University of Houston entitled “Distress Tolerance Plays Role in Alcohol Use and Abuse Among Firefighters”, researchers interviewed over 600 trauma-exposed firefighters to study the relationship between their distress tolerance, which is your actual or perceived ability to withstand emotional distress, and AUD. What they found was that firefighters with greater PTSD symptom severity reported higher levels of alcohol use to cope with negative emotional states. They also found that years in the fire service, occupational stress and alcohol consumptions were all significant predictors of socially-motivated alcohol use (Zegel, 2019).

PTSD and depression symptoms are often co-occurring conditions and as a result have very similar treatment methods. As of recently one of the most interesting potential treatment methods for major depressive disorder is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). The possibility of being able to use TMS to treat patients suffering from depression is exciting for several reasons some of which being that it is a non-invasive treatment method and that it doesn’t produce side effects that typical SSRIs can induce. The overlapping symptoms of co-occurring AUD and PTSD have the ability to exacerbate each other but because TMS allows for specifically targeted activation or inactivation of particular brain regions, TMS has the potential to show whether or not the improvement of one symptom has the potential to improve other symptoms as well. Amy Herold’s article “Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: Potential Treatment for Co-Occurring Alcohol, Traumatic Brain Injury and Posttraumatic Stress Disorders” as well as many other prior studies have shown that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is likely the optimal stimulation site for reducing alcohol craving which will help guide future studies.

 Although these articles focused on different aspects of addiction, it is evident that there is a relationship between occupational stress levels and an individual’s affinity for risky addictive behaviors. This is incredibly important for developing more effective clinical treatment plans for Veterans and firefighters alike who are struggling with AUD and addiction. As suggested by the first article, distress tolerance is heavily related to the motivation to consume alcohol and as suggested by Herold’s article, TMS might be an effective means at treating patients with depression or PTSD symptoms. For future research it might be interesting to conduct an experiment that evaluates the utility of TMS in reducing alcohol craving and consumption.

 References

 Herrold, A., Jordan, N., High, W. M., Babcock-Parziale, J., Chambers, R. A., Smith, B., Evans, C. T., Li, X., Mallinson, T., & Jenkins, S., Pape, T. L. B. (2014) Alcohol use and craving among Veterans with mental health disorders and mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development, 51, 1397-1410. doi: 10.1682

 Herrold, A., Kletzel, S., Harton, B., Chambers, R. A., Jordan, N., & Pape, T. L. B. (2014) Transcranial magnetic stimulation: potential treatment for co-occuring alcohol, traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorders. Neural Regeneration Research, 9, 1712-1730. doi: 10.4103

Zegel, M., Tran, J. K., & Vujanovic, A. A. (2019) Posttraumatic stress, alcohol use, and alcohol use motives among firefighters: The role of distress tolerance. Psychiatry Research, 282. doi: 10.1016
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191203133841.htm