Is Mapping Mouse Cell Clusters Bringing Us Closer to Treating Neural Diseases?

    One of the most prominent questions in modern medicine is how to treat neural disorders/diseases effectively. Numerous studies have attempted to understand how to treat neural diseases, such as Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, or Huntington's Disease. At the same time, other research has focused on how to best treat impairments like hearing loss or loss of mobility after a catastrophic brain injury. With all these complex mechanisms of disease and the brain regions they affect, wouldn't it be helpful to have a catalog of the suspected brain regions involved in each injury/disease or previous research findings made? That is precisely what a team of researchers attempts to do with their work through the BRAIN Initiative Cell Census Network (BICCN). In one of their articles titled "Cellular Atlases of the Entire Mouse Brain," this team of researchers aimed to categorize and record every mouse brain cell to better understand how to treat neural diseases. For this massive undertaking of a project, the team not only reported over 5,300 different cell clusters but also elements of cells such as location and what neural tissues the cells interact with (Schlott). They hope this level of specific information will aid future researchers in their attempts to map what areas of the brain are responsible for different diseases and what is structurally different within those regions. The mouse brain was also chosen for this project for its similarity to the human brain. Using a model like humans supports the ongoing effort to map the human brain and better understand how the brain works.

    While Dr. Wei Ming Yu and the research team in their article, "Critical Role of Hepsin/TMPRSS1 in Hearing and Tectorial Membrane Morphogenesis: Insights from Transgenic Mouse Models," does not directly relate to the work of the BICCN, their work serves as an example of the type of work that could be cataloged in this vast resource of information. Dr. Yu et al. provided information about the crucial role that hepsin plays in hearing and structural abnormalities in hepsin-lacking mice. Their attempts and discoveries about the crucial role of this protein and the structural abnormalities it causes could potentially be translated into something that would help humans who exhibit profound hearing loss (Yu et al.). For example, it was found that if human-hepsin lines were introduced into the hepsin-lacking mice, a partial hearing function was recovered, and the structural differences were lessened (Yu et al.). This particular finding could help researchers develop a new treatment for specific hearing abnormalities in humans. Other researchers could study this finding more in-depth if the information was cataloged and made available to them, which is exactly what the BICCN aims to provide (Schlott). The "groundwork" already being accomplished makes it easier for future researchers to study more complex problems stemming from earlier research. 

    With so much information and new insights being discovered, it makes sense to have a "library" of resources available to teams of researchers. Better identifying and labeling cell clusters of mice can make it easier for teams of researchers to study a more direct problem. For example, if a team of researchers wanted to specifically study and identify what populations of cells and neurons were involved/damaged when Hepsin was removed from the mice, they would know exactly where to begin if the information was made available to them through the BICCN network. These researchers could further catalog their findings into the cell clusters' folder, possibly inspiring another group to dive deeper into the problem. Having an organized and detailed map of cell clusters in a mouse brain can inspire future generations of researchers to dive deeper into problems and try to find cures for various neural diseases and conditions.  

 

Sources: 

Schlott, Karin. “First Atlas of Every Mouse Brain Cell Could Improve Neuro Disease Treatments.” Scientific American, Scientific American, 20 Feb. 2024, www.scientificamerican.com/article/first-atlas-of-every-mouse-brain-cell-could-improve-neuro-disease-treatments/.

Tosches, Maria Antonietta, and Heather J. Lee. “Cellular Atlases of the Entire Mouse Brain.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 13 Dec. 2023, www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-03781-1.

Yu, Wei-Ming, et al. Critical Role of Hepsin/TMPRSS1 in Hearing and Tectorial Membrane Morphogenesis: Insights from Transgenic Mouse Models, 2024. 

 

Source Localizations Potential in the Context of Understanding How Inhibitory Control Effects Academic Outcome

    The acquisition of academic skills has been extensively studied, and its findings have important implications for predicting the trajectory of later academic achievement in children. It has been found that this trajectory tends to stabilize following first grade, highlighting the importance of working to understand this effect in preschool and kindergarten age groups. Self-regulation and inhibitory control (IC) have been theorized to be essential factors in early success within the classroom. Furthermore, the preschool and kindergarten age groups are understood to represent a period of rapid development of these two factors, as this development allows for the exertion of greater voluntary control over one’s thoughts and actions in a classroom setting (Allan et al., 2014). The two papers discussed will explore this connection and its implications in potential localization.

    In the paper covered by Dr. Martha Ann Bell, "Relations Between Frontal EEG Maturation and Inhibitory Control in Preschool in the Prediction of Children's Early Academic Skills" (Whedon et al., 2020), this correlation was directly addressed to further elucidate the link between inhibitory control and academic achievement. The researchers employed a longitudinal study to investigate three central aims—the first being to assess the general pattern of resting-state alpha EEG levels of the PFC. The researchers expected significant positive change from the 10-month to 4-year span. The second aim was to associate the change in PFC EEG alpha levels with observed IC in these infants; expecting a positive change from 10 months to 4 years in alpha-level EEG would be associated with greater inhibitory control in these children. The final objective of this study was to assess if IC at the preschool level was a mediating factor in linking frontal alpha power level to performance in math and reading within the group, expecting IC at age 4 to be positively associated with academic success at age 6.

    Their findings regarding their initial inquiry displayed that from 10 months to 3 years, PFC alpha power levels increased, then declined, possibly consistent with the idea of neuronal development as a sequence of blooming and pruning of synaptic connections. Interestingly, for their second observation, the group found the slope of the relationship between IC and resting PFC alpha power was positively associated, whereas the intercept was not. Displaying that those with greater frontal alpha power at ten months didn't exactly predict greater IC values at 4; however, those displaying more significant PFC alpha power maturation across the study, displayed greater IC at age 4. Most significantly, they found that IC in children at age four positively correlated with educational outcomes in math at age six, as expected by their hypotheses, further bolstering the idea that the development of inhibitory control is critical for academic achievement (Whedon et al., 2020). However, through this study, the brain regions associated with these results, particularly involving IC, still lack understanding as source localization of the EEG data was not employed. 

    To better understand sources of IC, a meta-analysis by Dr. Luis Pires sought to examine inhibition-implicated regions through cortical source localization of event-related potentials (ERPs), a time-locked segment of EEG activity in response to a particular stimulus. The study categorized inhibitory responses into three segments: 0-200ms responses, 200-400ms responses, and 400-800ms responses. Focusing on components that are known correlates of inhibition control, source analysis at these timeframes served as a primary focus of his paper, “Event-Related Brain Potentials in the Study of Inhibition: Cognitive Control, Source Localization and Age-Related Modulation”. Through source analysis of the initial timeframe, the review posits that the P1 component was localized to the occipital regions of the brain. In contrast, the N1 component was bilaterally generated in occipitotemporal lobes. This early component localization can be attributed to the nature of visual processing, and due to the speed of response, it can be concluded that this is reflective of automatic inhibition processing in the visual areas. Furthermore, the study found that later inhibition-related ERP components (200-400ms) tended to have source generation in the inferior PFC regions, indicating higher-order functions being recruited in inhibitory reactions. Interestingly, they also found that it’s at this section of time that pre-supplementary motor areas also serve as a generator. This region is directly implicated in the inhibition and execution of motor actions, suggesting that this may be a critical period for the restraint of activation of a motor response. In their final analysis, ERP components from 400-800 ms were analyzed, further advancing the understanding of controlled inhibition processing. The N450 component associated with suppressing word information, critical to social interaction and functioning, was found to be very prominent throughout the literature. However, through their literary search, no relevant studies have yet examined the source localization of this component, and a conclusion regarding its generation cannot be reached (Pires et al., 2014). 

    Ultimately, these localization responses may serve as a route of further study within the context of inhibitory control determining academic success. This source localization work was done in adult populations, and developmental research surrounding associated components needs comparable analyses. Work to replicate these studies in kindergarten and preschool populations may further bolster the results found in Whedon et al.’s study, adding a biological correlate to their data while providing greater insight into the neuroanatomical progression of valence and variance of developing inhibitory control amongst individuals at these ages. 

1.) Allan, N. P., Hume, L. E., Allan, D. M., Farrington, A. L., & Lonigan, C. J. (2014). Relations between inhibitory control and the development of academic skills in preschool and Kindergarten: A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 50(10), 2368–2379. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037493 

2.) Pires, L., Leitão, J., Guerrini, C., & Simões, M. R. (2014). Event-related brain potentials in the study of inhibition: Cognitive control, source localization and age-related modulations. Neuropsychology Review, 24(4), 461–490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-014-9275-4 

3.) Whedon, M., Perry, N. B., & Bell, M. A. (2020). Relations between frontal EEG maturation and inhibitory control in preschool in the prediction of Children’s early academic skills. Brain and Cognition, 146, 105636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105636 

The Impact of Nutrition on Early Cognitive Development

        Malnutrition continues to be a common cause of death in America due to food insecurity and poverty. The trends in malnutrition have especially increased after the discontinuation of assistance measures offered during the pandemic, and the rates of poverty and food insecurity continue to be higher for marginalized and minority populations. Accordingly, people affected by these factors often develop a dependence on fast food and processed foods, leading to poor nutrition. Malnutrition, moreover, also plays a role in the cognitive development of young children. As the human brain develops, it requires various nutrients to support its structure and foster cognitive skills. Consequently, studies like the ones reported in Dr. Marina Roberts’ review paper have reported that children with poor nutrition frequently exhibit impaired cognitive skills.

        In Dr. Bell’s talk, she discussed that although there are patterns in behaviors and physiology, the patterns in cognition, emotion, and attention are complex in the context of development. In her research paper titled “Relations between frontal EEG maturation and inhibitory control in preschool in the prediction of children’s early academic skills,” she investigates changes in frontal alpha power from ten months old to four years old to track participants’ prefrontal cortex maturation as a baseline. These measurements, then, allowed her to predict inhibitory control abilities at age four and cognitive skills at age six. As defined by Dr. Bell, inhibitory control is a child’s ability to regulate or stop inappropriate behavior, likely through suppression. Children’s inhibitory control was estimated as a latent factor rather than being directly observed, and the study found that higher overall alpha power levels correlated to greater inhibitory control abilities. Then, children’s academic skills were measured through the Woodcock-Johnson math and reading performance scores. Overall, Dr. Bell’s research produced data that supported a positive correlation between prefrontal cortex maturation, inhibitory control, and academic performance.

        Dr. Bell also discussed that environmental factors, like caregiving, could have led to variation in preschoolers’ inhibitory control results, which related to their cognitive abilities. Within caregiving, nutrition levels in children’s meals are another predictor for academic performance, as discussed by Dr. Roberts in her paper, “The Effects of Nutritional Interventions on the Cognitive Development of Preschool-Age Children: A Systematic Review”. The twelve studies Dr. Roberts reviewed had samples mostly with children in preschool, including children at risk for and with insufficient nutrient levels. There was a wide range of possible nutritional supplements, from single nutrient supplementation through guava, iron, vitamin B, or iodized salt to multiple micronutrient supplementation added to porridge, rice, or even a raw paste to consumption of fatty fish to fortification of milk powder. After nutritional intervention, the studies used various standardized cognitive tests, like verbal reasoning, information processing speed, working memory, motor skills, and symbol search, to measure children's cognitive performance. Only the findings of some studies supported that nutritional supplements in young, malnourished children positively affected their cognitive development. Specifically, children who received micronutrient supplementation or consumed fish showed improvements in certain cognitive abilities, such as working memory, vocabulary, and symbol search, compared to children who received no nutritional intervention. Furthermore, multiple micronutrient supplementation improved children’s cognitive, social, and emotional skills, especially for children in low-quality preschools who showed improvements in inhibitory control as well.

        Dr. Bell and Dr. Roberts demonstrate how both prefrontal cortex maturation and nutrition can serve as indicators for early cognitive development and academic performance, respectively. From these results, it is essential to encourage adequate nutrient intake in preschool-age children as it can positively impact cognitive performance. Additionally, Dr. Bell found that alpha power values increased until age three, and Dr. Roberts mentions the necessity of sufficient nutrition during the first one thousand days of life for optimal cognitive growth, further emphasizing the first three years as a crucial period for brain development. Therefore, possible solutions to improve cognitive development in marginalized or minority populations include strengthening government-funded programs and social support systems to increase food security. Additionally, there should be medical care focused on detecting malnutrition in younger children to provide them with treatment in the hope of ensuring all children have an equal opportunity to break the perpetual cycle of intergenerational poverty through more developed cognitive abilities.

References

Roberts, M., Tolar-Peterson, T., Reynolds, A., Wall, C., Reeder, N., & Rico Mendez, G. (2022). The Effects of Nutritional Interventions on the Cognitive Development of Preschool-Age Children: A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 14, 532. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14030532

Whedon, M., Perry, N. B., & Bell, M. A. (2020). Relations between frontal EEG maturation and inhibitory control in preschool in the prediction of children’s early academic skills. Brain and Cognition, 146, 105636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105636

Connecting inhibitory control during childhood development to health promotion in college

    The research talk from Dr. Martha Ann Bell was extremely insightful and sparked much of my personal interest in the neuroscience field, specifically when it comes to wellness and mental health of younger populations. Early interventions can be crucial in the mental and cognitive development of individuals. In Dr. Bell’s research, she discusses how early cognitive functions like having control over one’s thoughts and behaviors may predict academic success as years go on. As children get older, their needs also differ such as the types of resources that they utilize. A study on “Optimizing Efforts to Promote Mental Health on College and University Campuses: Recommendations to Facilitate Usage of Services, Resources, and Supports” by Dr. Brett R. Harris, Brianna M. Maher, and Leah Wentworth explore the different efforts to support mental health and well-being in higher education environments. While Dr. Bell and Harris et al. have different areas of development that they focus on, both researchers value the importance of early intervention that is consistent as children grow. 

    When looking at Dr.Bell’s presentation and research article “Relations between frontal EEG maturation and inhibitory control in preschool in the prediction of children’s early academic skills,” there is heavy focus on the development of the frontal EEG which marks brain maturity and its result on early academic outcomes. Students were tracked from infancy till age four where it was found that there was an increase in frontal alpha power, which is a measurement of brain activity obtained via EEG. Having higher frontal alpha power resulted in better control of behavior when faced with impulses or challenging situations. Having this also showed better grades in basic classes like math and reading around six years of age. Therefore, it was determined that brain maturation during early childhood may play an important role in the academic success of students early on (Bell). 

    The article “Optimizing Efforts to Promote Mental Health on College and University Campuses: Recommendations to Facilitate Usage of Services, Resources, and Supports” by Dr. Brett R. Harris, Brianna M. Maher, and Leah Wentworth, focuses on the need for improving mental health services for college students. Emphasizing that the COVID-19 pandemic led to increased struggle for many, the researchers provide suggestions on ways to break the stigma surrounding mental health and ways that college campuses can offer support. Starting off with social media, they express that stigma can be reduced with open communication that allows students to feel less alone, such as widespread emails, student groups, and voluntary peer testimonies that engage the entire community. They advocate for opportunities that can involve faculty and staff with health promotion and outreach, as well as providing mental health specific training for those in leadership roles. Additionally, some key immediate resources like phone hotlines and counseling services that can support specific student needs and interventions should be present. All together, these efforts may result in a healthier campus where the well-being of students is prioritized so that they can reach their optimal academic successes (Harris et al.). 

    Both of these articles value comprehensive approaches to mental health, and the importance of early intervention. Dr. Bell mentioned how the brain maturation in the prefrontal cortex influences inhibitory control in preschool that results in certain academic performances. Intervention early is necessary if such results are not being produced in order to ensure that the children are on the right path. Similarly, Harris et al. emphasize the importance of early intervention on college campuses, such as providing support before one’s mental health worsens. If colleges are proactive in supporting students early on, then it may result in better academic performance and overall well-being versus students who may have only received support once it was too late. Furthermore, Dr. Bell discusses inhibitory control and how it is important in managing emotion. Having stronger inhibitory control may allow students to manage their challenges easier, such as stress or anxiety. The article by Harris et al. also discusses these same issues, highlighting how having a strong cognitive control early in life where individuals have coping mechanisms and support systems may allow them to better face the challenges that come with being in college. Both articles value early intervention, where Dr. Bell focuses on developmental growth and inhibitory control, while Harris et al.focus on mental health screening, training, and collective attitude. 

    In conclusion, both of these articles value the early-stage interventions that can be provided to individuals in order to result in better future outcomes, whether it is as a young child or in college. Having these interventions may lead to success and mental stability, and ultimately will help in all stages of life. 

References: 

Harris, Brett R et al. “Optimizing Efforts to Promote Mental Health on College and University Campuses: Recommendations to Facilitate Usage of Services, Resources, and Supports.” The journal of behavioral health services & research vol. 49,2 (2022): 252-258. doi:10.1007/s11414-021-09780-2

Whedon, Margaret, Nicole B. Perry, and Martha Ann Bell. "Relations Between Frontal EEG Maturation and Inhibitory Control in Preschool in the Prediction of Children's Early Academic Skills." Brain and Cognition, vol. 146, 2020, p. 105636. Elsevier, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105636​:contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0}.

Hepsin and ⍺-Tectorin's Importance in Preserving the Health of the Tectorial Membrane

The Tectorial Membrane (TM) is a structure located in the inner ear, with a large role in the ability to hear. More specifically, it correctly translates the frequency of sound waves through the ear into actual sounds of words and noise, allowing for the brain to properly understand what is being heard. Because of the importance of the TM in auditory processing, the stability and health of the structure as it develops is very sensitive and could result in the loss of hearing if tempered. In a past presentation at Loyola University’s Neuroscience Seminar course, one of the biology department’s professors, Dr. Wei-Ming Yu, talked about his research that involved the role of the Transmembrane Serine Protease 1 (TMPRSS1) gene, the protein hepsin being mainly associated with hearing in the TM. Dr. Pablo Roman‐Naranjo, a professor at the University of Granada in Granada, Spain, also conducted research regarding another protein in the TECTA gene that directly works with hearing in the TM: the ⍺-tectorin protein.

Hepsin and ⍺-tectorin are 2 very different proteins, however, when it comes to their mutations, it can affect the TM’s development and result in the loss of hearing, as well as other symptoms/disorders. With the mutation of ⍺-tectorin, the TECTA gene is unable to work to its proper functions, resulting in vertigo episodes and sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) (hearing loss caused by damage to inner ear, brain, or the auditory nerve–also one of the most common causes amongst those with hearing-impairment), both of these symptoms being directly associated with Meniere’s Disease (MD). MD is an ear disorder that can also involve tinnitus (ear-ringing) and physical health (nausea/vomit, sound sensitivity, headaches, etc.).

 Hepsin’s mutation primarily alters the morphogenesis and hearing ability of the TM, but can also result in an inability to properly balance. Dr. Yu’s study involved the use of human hespin and the protease-dead mutant of hespin with some genetic modification of the protein in “knock-out” (KO) mice, as a means to understand what functions of hespin are needed to improve the functionality of hearing. In the results, the KO mice with human hespin had a significant increase in their hearing ability and an improvement in the overall structure of the TM, while the mice with the hespin mutant had zero improvement in all areas. This not only proved the great importance of the protein in the formation of the TM, but also how much of an impact the mutation had on its structure. 

In Dr. Roman‐Naranjo’s research, he and his associates studied the proteins and genes involved in the underlying cause of MD. They did this by examining the genetic heredity of over 70 families with traces of MD using data from exome sequencing. As a result, they found that there were many mutations in the TECTA gene in several of these families, which all encode the specific protein ⍺-tectorin. With this common result, the TM also ended up with a change in structure and function, causing further problems than hearing loss to those with MD. 

The molecular changes in these genes not only resulted in mutations towards the proteins they represent but also caused damage to an important sense in the human experience: hearing. While both changes in the TM can be managed with things like surgery and hearing aids, the understanding of MD and the change in the morphogenesis of TM brings about the idea and future questioning of how gene mutation therapy might correct these mutations and/or be adapted/built specifically for the stability of the TM.

Memory, Perception, and the Mandela Effect

Memory, like perception, is a topic in scientific research that still contains many unanswered questions. While there are several processes and mechanisms that are known about memory, and its relationship to visual perception, a lot of questions remain unanswered. A big phenomenon that is known about the recall of memory images is known as the Mandela effect. Kim Armstrong, who wrote an article for the Association for Psychological Science has quite a few things to say about it.  

This article is very interesting because it talks about memory and the fact that we sometimes remember things incorrectly without knowing it. Armstrong talks about subtype of the Mandela. She refers to it as the Visual Mandela Effect (VME), which was originally brought about by Fiona Broomer (Armstrong, 2024). The VME refers to incorrect memory recall of images. The most common example of the Mandela effect is the monopoly character, in which many people associate with a monocle, when in fact, there isn’t one. The article explains that some of the causes to these types of memory distortions are related to schema and to visual experiences that are related to that image. The article also mentions a study in which researchers Prasad and Brainbridge showed participants a blurred canonical image of popular characters like Pikachu and Curious George and famous logos like Volkswagen and Fruit the Loom. After showing them these images, they were shown two additional images: a related VME image and the canonical image. Participants then had to relate the first image to either of the two images that they were given. What was surprising about the results is the fact that the participants looked at the images the same regardless of whether they had picked the correct one or not. With these results, Armstrong makes the suggestions that the attentional and perceptional differences on how people process images are not linked to the Mandela effect. She also states that tentative explanations for visual memory recall distortions could be that the act of enhancing the distinct features of an object is what makes them more memorable. These are all interesting points because they suggest that there is a influential connection between vision, perception, and memory. 

Earlier in the semester, Dr.Nicholas Baker introduced us to his interest in visual perception, specifically the representation of shapes and objects. Dr.Baker and colleagues studied the hypothesis that constant curvature segments serve as primitives in visual perception and representation. His findings suggested that segments of constant curvature are the building blocks of contour shape representation (Baker et al., 2021). In his research, Dr.Baker and colleagues asked participants to determine if shapes of two figures were the same or different. In this experiment, participants were shown an image for 1000 milliseconds. Immediately after that, the image was replaced with its sealed counterpart so that participants could chose whether that second image had the same shape as the previous one. 

While the purpose of this experiment was to investigate whether contours are represented as joint regions of constant curvature, I realized that memory also played an important role in this task. This made me wonder how memory, in addition to perception, played a role in the way in which participants responded. In another article titled The Interaction of Perception and Memory, Megla et al., make the statement that while visual perception and memory are two separate processes, they have a strong influence to one another and that modification of visual features can lead to enhanced memory. 

These interesting suggestions about memory and perception can also lead to further answer questions about memory modification. Although memory and perception still withhold some mysteries, the topic of memory modification is already being talked about. For this reason, I think that continuance of memory and perceptual research should continue to be studied. S. Matthew Liao and Anders Sandberg reviewed the ethical concerns about memory modification. According to them, if memory modification technologies (MMTs) do no harm to others and are strictly voluntarily, they should be allowed. In my opinion, there is still so much more to learn about memory before opening a door to such risky experiments. 

References

Baker, N., Garrigan, P., & Kellman, P. J. (2021). Constant curvature segments as building blocks of 2D shape representation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 150(8), 1556-1580. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001007

Liao, S. M., & Sandberg, A. (2008). The Normativity of memory modification. Neuroethics, 1(2), 85-99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12152-008-9009-5

Megla, E., & Bainbridge, W. A. (2023). The interaction of perception and memory. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264086.013.392

Visual memory distortions paint a picture of the past that never was. (n.d.). Association for Psychological Science - APS. https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/visual-memory-distortions.html

Musical Training and Inhibitory Control

 Inhibitory control (IC) is the ability to control natural urges and instinctual behavior in favor of more socially appropriate responses. It refers to a person’s command over their emotions, behavior, and actions. IC is not a skill inherently present at birth, but rather a skill humans develop as they mature. It is important in childhood development because it aids in academic success as evidenced by Dr.Bell’s findings in her research regarding brain maturation, IC development, and academic success. IC is also important as children mature because it helps them appropriately navigate social situations. Despite its crucial role in development, little is known about the origins of IC in our brains and how to foster its growth. In Dr.Bell’s research on IC, she and her team focused on locating its formation and maturation in the brain and relating its increase to academic success in children ages 4-6. In the article,Effects of Music Training on Inhibitory Control and Associated Neural Networks in School-Aged Children, a team of researchers similarly performed a longitudinal study over four years to determine if musical training can aid in progressing IC.

Dr.Bell and her team used EEG, a non-invasive technique that measures electrical signals, to observe the maturation of the prefrontal cortex. They wanted to see if it correlated with increased IC development. They specifically tracked resting state alpha power because it is known to show increased brain maturity. According to their findings, increased resting state alpha power was positively associated with IC in children at age four. These findings also showed that increased IC at age four positively correlated with better academic skills at age six. To confirm region specificity, Dr.Bell and her team also tracked resting alpha state power in the posterior brain to see if correlated with inhibitory control. They did not see any correlation between posterior brain activity and IC, which validated their idea of IC development in the prefrontal cortex. This led their team to the conclusion that prefrontal cortex maturation is important in inhibitory control development and future academic success.

In the research article regarding musical training, children from under-resourced communities were selected to participate in a longitudinal study to determine if musical training, as opposed to sports training or no structured activity, developed increased IC in children ages six and up. They conducted the study over four years and employed various tasks such as a Delayed Gratification task, a Flanker task, and a Color-Word Stroop task to observe differences in IC between the three experimental groups. These studies were conducted under an MRI scanner and without one to determine if changes in brain activity were associated with IC activation. In the delayed gratification task, researchers noticed that musically trained children displayed a greater ability to wait for delayed larger rewards compared to their sports-playing or control group counterparts. Similarly, in the flanker task, the musically trained group showed significant improvements in their focus in completing the task over years three and four compared to their sports-playing and control counterparts. Another significant finding of the research was that fMRI showed greater activation in brain regions associated with IC for children with musical training during the performance of these tasks. However, in year 4, the fMRI results became consistent for all groups leading to the conclusion that while musical training might speed up the maturation of inhibition skills, it did not necessarily enhance them.

One common factor in both studies is the focus on what techniques can be used to improve IC since it has beneficial academic effects. While musical training might not be the ultimate answer, it can be a starting point in developing IC earlier on in a child’s academic career.

Another common factor between both research findings was the role of language in the development of inhibitory control. In Dr.Bell’s research, the team had to control for vocabulary and language because it positively influenced IC in kids of young ages. Similarly, in the musical training study, researchers found that bilingual children had better inhibitory control skills, and although it was not controlled for, they did use bilingualism as a contributor to why the results might’ve been skewed since 96% of their participants were bilingual. Using this as a jumping-off point, future studies could focus on further studying language and its effects on IC using EEG and fMRI to observe brain activity. 

References: 

Hennessy, Sarah L., et al. “Effects of Music Training on Inhibitory Control and Associated Neural Networks in School-Aged Children: A Longitudinal Study.” Frontiers, Frontiers, 24 Sept. 2019, www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnins.2019.01080/full.